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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Study Guide

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  • Organ system involved in transporting nutrients and gases in blood
    The cardiovascular system transports nutrients, gases, and wastes in the blood throughout the body.
  • Levels of structural organization in the human body
    The levels include chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism levels.
  • Body region terms
    Specific body areas are designated by terms such as cephalic (head), thoracic (chest), abdominal, pelvic, and limb regions.
  • Body planes
    The main planes are sagittal (divides left and right), frontal (divides front and back), and transverse (divides top and bottom).
  • Negative vs positive feedback mechanisms
    Negative feedback reverses a change to maintain homeostasis; positive feedback amplifies a response to drive a process to completion.
  • Building blocks of nucleic acids and proteins
    Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides; proteins are made of amino acids.
  • Types of chemical bonds and electron interactions
    Ionic bonds transfer electrons; covalent bonds share electrons; hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between polar molecules.
  • Types and functions of RNA molecules
    mRNA carries genetic code, tRNA brings amino acids, and rRNA forms ribosomes for protein synthesis.
  • Glycogen
    Glycogen is a polysaccharide that stores glucose in the liver and muscles for energy.
  • Role of rough endoplasmic reticulum in protein production
    The rough ER has ribosomes that synthesize proteins destined for secretion or membranes.
  • Four main tissue types
    The four types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.
  • Tissues making up muscle, tendons, ligaments, and neurons
    Muscle tissue forms muscles; dense connective tissue forms tendons and ligaments; nervous tissue forms neurons.
  • Cell types in the skin
    Skin contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells.
  • Skin cells that protect from sun radiation
    Melanocytes produce melanin, which protects skin from UV radiation.
  • Functions of the integumentary system
    Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis, and excretion.
  • Functions of bones
    Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and energy storage.
  • Bone cells: osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts
    Osteoblasts build bone, osteocytes maintain bone, and osteoclasts break down bone.
  • Stages of simple fracture repair
    Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling.
  • Three muscle types and their control
    Skeletal muscle is voluntary, cardiac muscle is involuntary, and smooth muscle is involuntary.
  • Functional characteristics of the muscular system
    Excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity.
  • Muscle fascicles
    Bundles of muscle fibers surrounded by connective tissue.
  • Role of calcium and terminal cisternae in muscle contraction
    Calcium released from the terminal cisternae triggers muscle contraction by binding to regulatory proteins.
  • Steps of muscle contraction starting at neuromuscular junction
    1. Nerve impulse releases acetylcholine, 2. Muscle fiber depolarizes, 3. Calcium released, 4. Cross-bridge cycling, 5. Muscle contracts.
  • Isotonic vs isometric contractions
    Isotonic contractions change muscle length; isometric contractions generate force without changing length.
  • Energy sources during exercise
    ATP stored, creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic respiration.
  • Differences between bipolar and multipolar neurons
    Bipolar neurons have two processes; multipolar neurons have many processes.
  • Absolute refractory period
    Time during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential regardless of stimulus strength.
  • Depolarization voltage range in neurons
    From -70mV (resting) to +30mV during depolarization.
  • Parts of a neuron and their functions
    Dendrites receive signals, cell body processes information, axon transmits impulses.