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Anatomy & Physiology: Respiratory, Blood, Heart, and Vessels Overview

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  • Major function of the respiratory system
    To facilitate gas exchange, supplying oxygen to the blood and removing carbon dioxide.
  • Four processes involved with respiration
    Pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, internal respiration, and transport of gases.
  • General functions of upper respiratory organs
    Filter, warm, and humidify air; includes nose, pharynx, and larynx.
  • General functions of lower respiratory organs
    Conduct air to lungs and facilitate gas exchange; includes trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs.
  • Composition of bronchial tree branches
    Bronchioles have smooth muscle and cuboidal epithelial cells.
  • Difference between conducting and respiratory zones
    Conducting zone moves air; respiratory zone contains alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
  • Significant features of alveoli
    Thin walls, large surface area, surrounded by capillaries for efficient gas exchange.
  • Function of pleurae
    Membranes that reduce friction and create pressure gradients for lung expansion.
  • Pulmonary ventilation stages
    Inhalation and exhalation involving volume changes that alter pressure to move air.
  • Gas law applying to pulmonary ventilation
    Boyle's law: pressure inversely varies with volume.
  • Effect of volume change on pressure in lungs
    Increasing lung volume decreases pressure, causing air to flow in; decreasing volume increases pressure, pushing air out.
  • Dalton's law in respiration
    Total pressure is the sum of partial pressures of individual gases.
  • Henry's law in respiration
    Gas solubility in liquid is proportional to its partial pressure.
  • External respiration influences
    Partial pressure gradients, gas solubility, membrane thickness, and surface area affect gas exchange.
  • Internal respiration influence
    Driven by partial pressure gradients between blood and tissues.
  • Oxygen transport in blood
    Mostly bound to hemoglobin in erythrocytes; some dissolved in plasma.
  • Partial pressure of oxygen locations
    High in lungs/alveoli; low in tissues.
  • Types of hypoxia
    Hypoxic, anemic, ischemic, and histotoxic hypoxia.
  • Factors changing oxygen-hemoglobin affinity
    pH, temperature, CO2 levels, and 2,3-BPG concentration.
  • Carbon dioxide transport methods
    Dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions.
  • Partial pressure of carbon dioxide locations
    High in tissues; low in lungs.
  • General functions of blood
    Transport, regulation, and protection.
  • Components of blood
    Plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets).
  • Function of erythrocytes
    Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
  • Regulation of erythrocyte count
    Controlled by erythropoietin hormone based on oxygen levels.
  • General functions of leukocytes
    Immune defense and inflammation.
  • Phases of hemostasis
    Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation.
  • Agglutinogens and agglutinins
    Agglutinogens are blood group antigens; agglutinins are antibodies against them.
  • Rh factor and pregnancy
    Rh-negative mothers can develop antibodies against Rh-positive fetus, causing hemolytic disease.
  • Pulmonary vs systemic circuits
    Pulmonary circuit carries blood to lungs; systemic circuit carries blood to body tissues.
  • Heart structure basics
    Includes coverings, four chambers, and valves.
  • Pathway of blood through the heart
    Right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body.
  • Characteristics of cardiac muscle fibers
    Striated, branched, interconnected, with abundant mitochondria.
  • Sequence of cardiac excitation
    SA node → AV node → AV bundle → bundle branches → Purkinje fibers.
  • Phases of cardiac cycle
    Atrial systole, ventricular systole, and relaxation.
  • Tunics of blood vessels
    Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
  • Characteristics of arteries
    Elastic, muscular, and arterioles with thick walls and high pressure.
  • Characteristics of capillaries
    Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal types with varying permeability.
  • Mechanism of exchange in capillaries
    Diffusion, filtration, and osmosis influenced by hydrostatic and osmotic pressures.
  • Characteristics of veins
    Thinner walls, larger lumen, valves to prevent backflow.
  • Definition of pulse
    Rhythmic expansion of an artery due to heartbeats.
  • Meaning of blood pressure numbers
    Systolic pressure over diastolic pressure, indicating heart contraction and relaxation.
  • Factors influencing blood pressure
    Cardiac output, blood volume, resistance, and vessel elasticity.