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Autonomic Nervous System and Special Senses - Anatomy & Physiology

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  • What is an autonomic reflex?
    An involuntary response to a stimulus involving visceral effectors such as the heart, glands, or smooth muscle.
  • Name the five components of a visceral reflex arc.
    1. Receptor, 2. Sensory (afferent) neuron, 3. Integration center, 4. Motor (efferent) neuron, 5. Effector.
  • How do the somatic and autonomic nervous systems differ in motor pathways?
    SNS uses a single neuron from CNS to effector; ANS uses a two-neuron chain (preganglionic and postganglionic neurons).
  • What neurotransmitters are used by the somatic and autonomic nervous systems?
    SNS uses acetylcholine (ACh); ANS uses ACh and norepinephrine (NE).
  • What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system and their general functions?
    Sympathetic division prepares for 'fight or flight'; parasympathetic division promotes 'rest and digest' activities.
  • Where are the preganglionic neurons located in the sympathetic division?
    In the lateral horns of spinal cord segments T1 to L2.
  • What is the difference between sympathetic chain ganglia and collateral ganglia?
    Sympathetic chain ganglia lie alongside the vertebral column and innervate organs above the diaphragm; collateral ganglia are anterior to the vertebral column and innervate organs below the diaphragm.
  • How does the adrenal medulla contribute to sympathetic responses?
    Preganglionic fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood, prolonging sympathetic effects.
  • Where are parasympathetic preganglionic neurons located?
    In the brainstem (cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X) and sacral spinal cord segments S2 to S4.
  • What are terminal and intramural ganglia in the parasympathetic division?
    Terminal ganglia are near target organs; intramural ganglia are located within the walls of target organs.
  • Which cranial nerves are involved in parasympathetic innervation and their target organs?
    CN III: eye muscles; CN VII: lacrimal and salivary glands; CN IX: parotid salivary gland; CN X: heart, lungs, digestive tract.
  • What types of receptors bind acetylcholine in the autonomic nervous system?
    Cholinergic receptors, including nicotinic and muscarinic receptors.
  • What receptors bind norepinephrine and epinephrine in the sympathetic nervous system?
    Adrenergic receptors, including alpha (α) and beta (β) receptors.
  • Which neurotransmitters are released by postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
    Sympathetic postganglionic neurons usually release norepinephrine (NE), except sweat glands which release ACh; parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release ACh.
  • What is dual innervation in the autonomic nervous system?
    Most organs receive input from both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, allowing precise control.
  • Name some structures that do not receive dual innervation.
    Adrenal medulla, arrector pili muscles, sweat glands, and most blood vessels.
  • What is the role of beta blockers in autonomic pharmacology?
    Beta blockers inhibit beta receptors to reduce sympathetic stimulation of the heart, lowering heart rate and blood pressure.
  • What is the difference between general and special senses?
    General senses are widely distributed and detect touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception; special senses are localized in the head and include smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium.
  • Where are olfactory receptors located and what do they detect?
    In the olfactory epithelium of the nasal cavity; they detect odorants.
  • What are the five basic tastes detected by gustatory receptors?
    Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.
  • Name the three layers (tunics) of the eyeball.
    Fibrous tunic (sclera and cornea), vascular tunic (choroid, ciliary body, iris), and neural tunic (retina).
  • What is the function of the cornea compared to the sclera?
    The cornea is transparent and refracts light; the sclera is opaque and protective.
  • What is the pathway of aqueous humor in the eye?
    Produced by ciliary body → posterior chamber → pupil → anterior chamber → drains via canal of Schlemm.
  • What causes glaucoma?
    Increased intraocular pressure due to impaired drainage of aqueous humor, which can damage the optic nerve.
  • What are rods and cones in the retina responsible for?
    Rods detect dim light and black-and-white vision; cones detect color and sharpness.
  • What is the fovea centralis?
    The area of highest visual acuity in the retina, densely packed with cones.
  • How does the lens change shape during accommodation for near and distant objects?
    For near objects, ciliary muscle contracts, suspensory ligaments relax, lens thickens; for distant objects, ciliary muscle relaxes, ligaments tighten, lens flattens.
  • What is the auditory pathway for hearing?
    Sound → cochlea → cochlear nerve → brainstem → thalamus → primary auditory cortex (temporal lobe).
  • What structures are involved in equilibrium?
    Vestibule (utricle and saccule) for static and linear movements; semicircular canals for angular acceleration.