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Blood Anatomy & Physiology

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  • Functions of Blood
    Transport: delivers O2, nutrients, wastes, hormones. Regulation: maintains temperature, pH, fluid volume. Protection: prevents blood loss and infection.
  • Composition of Blood
    Blood is connective tissue with plasma (nonliving fluid matrix) and formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, platelets).
  • Physical Characteristics of Blood
    Sticky, opaque fluid with metallic taste; color varies with O2 content; pH 7.35–7.45; ~8% body weight; volume 5–6 L males, 4–5 L females.
  • Hematocrit
    Percentage of blood volume occupied by RBCs; normal ~47% males, ~42% females.
  • Plasma Composition
    About 90% water with dissolved solutes: nutrients, gases, hormones, wastes, and plasma proteins like albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen.
  • Erythrocyte Structure
    Biconcave, anucleate cells filled with hemoglobin; flexible due to spectrin; 7.5 μm diameter.
  • Hemoglobin Structure
    Protein globin with four polypeptide chains (2 alpha, 2 beta) each bound to a heme group containing iron that binds O2.
  • Erythropoiesis
    Process of RBC formation in red bone marrow from hematopoietic stem cells through stages including proerythroblast and reticulocyte.
  • Regulation of Erythropoiesis
    Controlled by erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys in response to hypoxia; requires iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid.
  • Life Span and Fate of RBCs
    Live 100–120 days; old RBCs broken down by spleen macrophages; iron recycled; heme degraded to bilirubin.
  • Anemia
    Condition with low O2-carrying capacity; causes include blood loss, low RBC production, or high RBC destruction.
  • Sickle-Cell Anemia
    Genetic disorder with mutated hemoglobin S causing crescent-shaped RBCs that block vessels and rupture easily.
  • Polycythemia
    Excess RBCs increasing blood viscosity; primary caused by bone marrow cancer, secondary by hypoxia or EPO increase.
  • Leukocytes (WBCs)
    Complete cells with nuclei; defend against disease; classified as granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranulocytes (lymphocytes, monocytes).
  • Neutrophils
    Most numerous WBCs; phagocytic bacteria slayers; have multilobed nucleus and granules with enzymes and defensins.
  • Eosinophils
    2–4% of WBCs; bilobed nucleus; granules contain enzymes to digest parasitic worms; involved in allergies.
  • Basophils
    Rarest WBCs; granules contain histamine which promotes inflammation and attracts other WBCs.
  • Lymphocytes
    25% of WBCs; large spherical nucleus; key in immunity; T cells attack infected cells, B cells produce antibodies.
  • Monocytes
    Largest WBCs; kidney-shaped nucleus; differentiate into macrophages; phagocytic and activate lymphocytes.
  • Platelets
    Cell fragments from megakaryocytes; involved in clotting by forming platelet plugs and releasing clotting chemicals.
  • Hemostasis Steps
    1) Vascular spasm: vessel constriction. 2) Platelet plug formation. 3) Coagulation: fibrin mesh stabilizes clot.
  • Coagulation Pathways
    Intrinsic pathway triggered by blood factors; extrinsic pathway triggered by tissue factor; both activate factor X leading to thrombin formation.
  • Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
    Platelets contract to shrink clot; plasmin enzyme dissolves clot after repair.
  • Blood Groups ABO
    Based on presence of A and B antigens on RBCs; antibodies in plasma react against absent antigens; types A, B, AB, O.
  • Rh Blood Group
    Presence (+) or absence (-) of Rh antigen; important in pregnancy and transfusions; Rh- mothers can form antibodies against Rh+ fetus.
  • Blood Transfusion Reactions
    Mismatched transfusions cause agglutination, hemolysis, kidney failure; type O universal donor, AB universal recipient.
  • Leukemias
    Cancer of WBCs causing overproduction of abnormal cells; acute affects children, chronic affects adults; fatal without treatment.
  • Infectious Mononucleosis
    Viral disease caused by Epstein-Barr virus; high numbers of atypical lymphocytes; symptoms include fatigue and sore throat.