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Endocrine System and Hormones - Anatomy & Physiology

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  • Major endocrine organs

    Include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pineal gland, pancreas, gonads, and others located throughout the body.

  • Types of chemical messengers

    Hormones act on distant targets via blood; paracrines act locally on different nearby cells; autocrines act on the same cell that secretes them.

  • Example of paracrine signaling

    Somatostatin from pancreatic cells inhibits insulin release from other pancreatic cells.

  • Example of autocrine signaling

    Prostaglandins from smooth muscle cells cause those same cells to contract.

  • Functions of hormones

    Control reproduction, growth, development; maintain electrolyte, water, nutrient balance; regulate metabolism and energy; mobilize body defenses.

  • Characteristics of endocrine glands

    Produce hormones, lack ducts, release hormones into tissue fluid, have rich vascular and lymphatic drainage, and hormone cells arranged for maximum capillary contact.

  • Difference between nervous and endocrine control

    Nervous system acts rapidly and specifically via action potentials; endocrine system acts slower but longer-lasting via hormones in blood.

  • Hormone classification by chemical structure

    Hormones are either amino acid-based (peptides, amines) or steroids (lipid-soluble).

  • Mechanisms of hormone action

    Hormones act via second messengers like cyclic AMP or by directly activating specific genes.

  • Regulation of hormone release

    Controlled by humoral, neural, and hormonal stimuli.

  • Factors affecting target cell activation

    Depends on hormone levels, receptor affinity, and number of receptors on the target cell.

  • Types of hormone interactions

    Permissiveness, synergism, and antagonism describe how hormones influence each other's effects.

  • Role of hypothalamus in endocrine system

    Controls the pituitary gland via the hypophyseal portal system (anterior pituitary) and neural connections (posterior pituitary).

  • Posterior pituitary hormones and functions

    Oxytocin regulates uterine contractions; antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates water balance.

  • Anterior pituitary hormones

    Include growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and prolactin.

  • Thyroid hormones and their role

    Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) regulate metabolism; thyroxine formation requires iodine and thyroglobulin.

  • Parathyroid hormone function

    Regulates blood calcium by increasing intestinal absorption, kidney reabsorption, and bone calcium release.

  • Adrenal gland hormones

    Include aldosterone (electrolyte balance), cortisol (stress response), and adrenal androgens.

  • Pineal gland hormone and function

    Secretes melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles.

  • Pancreatic hormones and their effects

    Insulin lowers blood glucose; glucagon raises blood glucose.

  • Gonadal hormones

    Testes produce testosterone; ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone; placenta produces hormones supporting pregnancy.

  • Other organs with hormonal functions

    Heart (atrial natriuretic peptide), kidneys (erythropoietin), skin (cholecalciferol), adipose tissue (leptin), bone (osteocalcin), thymus (thymosins).