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Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology: Cellular Level

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이 집합의 용어 (31)

  • What are cells in the human body?
    Cells are the smallest living units in the human body (eukaryotic cells) and the building blocks of all organisms.
  • What is the function of the plasma membrane?
    The plasma membrane forms the outer boundary of a cell, allowing selective transport of substances and separating intracellular and extracellular fluids.
  • What are the major components of the plasma membrane?
    Phospholipids and cholesterol are major components; phospholipids form a bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
  • What roles do proteins play in the plasma membrane?
    Integral proteins are embedded in the membrane; transmembrane proteins span it; peripheral proteins are bound to surfaces; they assist in transport, signaling, and support.
  • What are the three major parts of the cytoplasm?
    Cytosol (intracellular fluid), organelles (specialized structures), and inclusions (insoluble materials like glycogen and pigments).
  • What distinguishes nonmembranous from membranous organelles?
    Nonmembranous organelles lack membranes and contact cytosol directly (e.g., cytoskeleton, ribosomes); membranous organelles are enclosed by membranes (e.g., ER, Golgi, mitochondria).
  • What are the three types of cytoskeletal fibers?
    Microfilaments (actin), intermediate filaments, and microtubules (tubulin).
  • What is the function of microfilaments?
    Provide mechanical strength, attach plasma membrane to cytoplasm, and determine cytosol consistency; involved in muscle contraction.
  • What functions do intermediate filaments serve?
    Strengthen the cell, maintain cell shape, and stabilize organelle positions.
  • What are the functions of microtubules?
    Strengthen cell, maintain shape, anchor organelles, assist in cell movement, move vesicles via motor proteins, form spindle apparatus, centrioles, and cilia.
  • What is the centrosome and its role?
    A cytoplasmic region near the nucleus that organizes microtubules; contains centrioles that form the spindle apparatus during cell division.
  • What are ribosomes and their function?
    Organelles composed of rRNA and proteins that synthesize proteins; exist as free ribosomes or fixed on rough ER.
  • What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?
    Smooth ER (SER) lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids; Rough ER (RER) has ribosomes and synthesizes and modifies proteins.
  • What are the main functions of the Golgi apparatus?
    Modifies and packages secretions, further modifies proteins, and packages digestive enzymes into lysosomes.
  • What are lysosomes and their functions?
    Vesicles with digestive enzymes that hydrolyze polymers, recycle organelles, destroy bacteria, and perform autolysis (self-destruction).
  • What is the role of mitochondria?
    Organelles that produce energy in the form of ATP; number varies by cell type according to energy demand.
  • What are the main functions of the nucleus?
    Stores genetic information (DNA), controls protein synthesis, and determines cell structure and function.
  • What is the nuclear envelope and nuclear pores?
    Double membrane surrounding the nucleus; nuclear pores allow regulated exchange of RNA and proteins between nucleus and cytoplasm.
  • What is the nucleolus and its function?
    A nuclear organelle that synthesizes rRNA and assembles ribosomal subunits.
  • What is the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology?
    DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated into a protein.
  • What is transcription?
    The synthesis of RNA from a DNA template, producing mRNA in the nucleus.
  • What is translation?
    The synthesis of a polypeptide from an mRNA template at the ribosome, using tRNA to deliver amino acids.
  • What is diffusion?
    Passive movement of substances from higher to lower concentration down their concentration gradient.
  • What is osmosis?
    Net diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane toward higher solute concentration.
  • Define tonicity and its types.
    Tonicity describes solute concentration effects on cells: isotonic (equal), hypotonic (cell swells), hypertonic (cell shrinks).
  • What is carrier-mediated transport?
    Transport involving specific integral proteins that bind and carry substances across the membrane; can be passive or active.
  • What is facilitated diffusion?
    Passive carrier-mediated transport allowing large water-soluble molecules to cross the membrane via carrier proteins.
  • What is active transport?
    Energy-dependent transport moving substances against their concentration gradients, often using ATP.
  • Describe the sodium-potassium pump.
    An active antiporter that exchanges 3 intracellular sodium ions for 2 extracellular potassium ions per ATP hydrolyzed to maintain homeostasis.
  • What is the cell life cycle?
    The process of cell growth and division including interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) and M phase (mitosis and cytokinesis).
  • What occurs during mitosis?
    Nuclear division with stages prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis).