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Anatomy & Physiology: Bones, Joints, and Skeletal Tissues

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  • What are the three types of skeletal cartilage and their primary functions?

    Hyaline cartilage: support, flexibility, resilience; most abundant.
    Elastic cartilage: similar to hyaline but with elastic fibers; found in external ear and epiglottis.
    Fibrocartilage: highly compressed with tensile strength; found in menisci and intervertebral discs.

  • What are the two types of bone marrow and their locations in infants and adults?

    Red bone marrow: in infants, found in medullary cavity and all spongy bone areas; in adults, found in diploƫ of flat bones and heads of femur and humerus.
    Yellow bone marrow: found in medullary cavity of long bones, mainly fat.

  • Describe the structure of a typical long bone.

    Consists of a diaphysis (shaft) made of compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity with yellow marrow, and epiphyses (ends) with compact bone exterior and spongy bone interior, covered by articular cartilage.

  • What are the main functions of bones?

    Support the body framework, protect vital organs, enable movement via muscle attachment, store minerals (calcium, phosphorus), and produce blood cells (hematopoiesis).

  • Name and describe the three types of bone markings.

    Projections: sites for muscle/ligament attachment (e.g., tuberosity, crest).
    Joint surfaces: form joints (e.g., head, facet).
    Depressions and openings: allow passage of vessels/nerves (e.g., foramen, fossa).

  • What is the Haversian system (osteon) in compact bone?

    The structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central (Haversian) canal containing blood vessels and nerves.

  • What are the organic and inorganic components of bone and their functions?

    Organic: osteoid (collagen and proteins) provides flexibility and tensile strength.
    Inorganic: hydroxyapatites (calcium phosphate salts) provide hardness and resistance to compression.

  • Describe intramembranous ossification.

    Bone develops from fibrous connective tissue membranes; forms flat bones like skull and clavicles; involves ossification center formation, matrix secretion, woven bone and periosteum formation, then bone collar and red marrow development.

  • Describe endochondral ossification.

    Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage; involves bone collar formation, cartilage cavitation, periosteal bud invasion, spongy bone formation, medullary cavity development, and secondary ossification centers in epiphyses.

  • What are the three functional zones in the epiphyseal plate during long bone growth?

    Growth zone: cartilage cells undergo mitosis.
    Transformation zone: cells enlarge, matrix calcifies, cells die.
    Osteogenic zone: new bone formation occurs.

  • How do hormones regulate bone growth during youth?

    Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood; testosterone and estrogens promote adolescent growth spurts and later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending longitudinal growth.

  • What is Wolff's law in bone remodeling?

    A bone grows or remodels in response to the mechanical forces or demands placed upon it, leading to changes in bone thickness, trabeculae alignment, and projections where muscles attach.

  • List the classifications of bone fractures by position, completeness, orientation, and skin penetration.

    Position: nondisplaced or displaced.
    Completeness: complete or incomplete.
    Orientation: linear or transverse.
    Skin penetration: compound (open) or simple (closed).

  • What are the four stages of bone fracture healing?

    1. Hematoma formation.
    2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation.
    3. Bony callus formation.
    4. Bone remodeling.

  • What causes osteomalacia and rickets, and what are their main symptoms?

    Both caused by insufficient calcium or vitamin D deficiency.
    Osteomalacia: soft, weakened bones in adults with pain on weight bearing.
    Rickets: similar in children, causing bowed legs and bone deformities.

  • What is osteoporosis and who is most at risk?

    A disease where bone resorption outpaces deposition, leading to fragile bones; most common in postmenopausal women.

  • Describe the structural classification of joints.

    Based on material binding bones and presence of joint cavity: fibrous (no cavity), cartilaginous (no cavity), and synovial (fluid-filled cavity).

  • What are the three functional classifications of joints by movement?

    Synarthroses: immovable.
    Amphiarthroses: slightly movable.
    Diarthroses: freely movable.

  • Name the three types of fibrous joints and an example of each.

    Sutures: skull bones.
    Syndesmoses: tibia-fibula connection.
    Gomphoses: tooth in alveolar socket.

  • What are the two types of cartilaginous joints and examples?

    Synchondroses: hyaline cartilage, immovable (e.g., epiphyseal plates).
    Symphyses: fibrocartilage pad, slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis).

  • List the general features of a synovial joint.

    Articular cartilage, joint cavity, articular capsule, synovial fluid, and reinforcing ligaments.

  • What factors determine the stability of a synovial joint?

    Articular surface shape, ligament number and location, and muscle tone via tendons crossing the joint.

  • Describe the six types of synovial joints with examples.

    Plane: flat surfaces, gliding (intercarpal).
    Hinge: uniaxial flexion/extension (elbow).
    Pivot: uniaxial rotation (proximal radioulnar).
    Condyloid: biaxial angular motion (wrist).
    Saddle: biaxial, greater movement (thumb carpometacarpal).
    Ball-and-socket: multiaxial (shoulder, hip).

  • What are common joint injuries and their characteristics?

    Sprains: stretched or torn ligaments.
    Cartilage injuries: torn cartilage, often repaired arthroscopically.
    Dislocations: bones forced out of alignment, often with sprains and inflammation.

  • What are the main types of arthritis and their features?

    Osteoarthritis: wear-and-tear, cartilage breakdown, common with aging.
    Rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune, chronic inflammation, pannus formation, joint deformity.