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Anatomy & Physiology: Central Nervous System and Brain Structures

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  • Primary brain vesicles formed from the neural tube

    The neural tube's anterior end forms three primary brain vesicles: Prosencephalon (forebrain), Mesencephalon (midbrain), and Rhombencephalon (hindbrain).

  • Components of the cerebral hemispheres

    The cerebral hemispheres consist of three main components: cortex (gray matter), white matter, and basal nuclei.

  • Function of the cerebellum

    The cerebellum adjusts motor output to ensure coordination and balance for smooth, precise skeletal muscle movements.

  • Three paired structures of the diencephalon

    The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus, which surround the third ventricle.

  • Role of the thalamus

    The thalamus acts as the relay station for sensory information ascending to the cerebral cortex and participates in sensation, motor activities, arousal, learning, and memory.

  • Key homeostatic functions of the hypothalamus

    The hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system, regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance, sleep-wake cycles, and controls the endocrine system.

  • Brain stem components

    The brain stem consists of three regions: midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, organized superior to inferior.

  • Function of the medulla oblongata

    The medulla oblongata controls vital autonomic reflexes including cardiovascular and respiratory centers, and regulates vomiting, coughing, and swallowing.

  • Cerebral cortex functional areas

    The cerebral cortex has three types of functional areas: motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.

  • Primary motor cortex location and function

    Located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe, it controls precise voluntary movements of skeletal muscles via pyramidal cells.

  • Somatotopy in the primary motor cortex

    The primary motor cortex has a spatial body map called the motor homunculus, with body parts represented upside down and disproportionally based on motor control precision.

  • Function of the premotor cortex

    The premotor cortex plans and sequences complex movements, coordinating multiple muscle groups and using sensory feedback.

  • Broca’s area role

    Broca’s area, usually in the left hemisphere, directs muscles involved in speech production and is active in planning voluntary motor activities.

  • Primary somatosensory cortex function

    Located in the postcentral gyrus, it receives sensory input from skin and proprioceptors, enabling spatial discrimination of body regions.

  • Visual areas of the cerebral cortex

    The primary visual cortex processes visual input from the retina, while the visual association area interprets color, form, and movement using past experiences.

  • Limbic system functions

    The limbic system is involved in emotions, memory, and arousal, linking emotional responses to autonomic functions.

  • Reticular activating system (RAS) role

    The RAS maintains alertness and consciousness by sending continuous impulses to the cerebral cortex and filtering sensory input.

  • Blood-brain barrier (BBB) components and function

    The BBB consists of tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells, supported by astrocytes, preventing harmful substances from entering the brain and maintaining a stable environment.

  • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) formation and circulation

    CSF is produced by the choroid plexuses in brain ventricles, circulates through ventricles and subarachnoid space, and is absorbed into venous blood via arachnoid granulations.

  • Major ascending sensory pathways

    Key ascending pathways include the dorsal column-medial lemniscal (fine touch, vibration, proprioception), spinothalamic (pain, temperature, crude touch), and spinocerebellar (proprioception for coordination).

  • Direct (pyramidal) motor pathways

    Direct pathways originate from pyramidal cells in the motor cortex and control fast, skilled voluntary movements via corticospinal tracts.

  • Indirect motor pathways functions

    Indirect pathways regulate posture, balance, coarse limb movements, and reflexive head, neck, and eye movements through multisynaptic brain stem nuclei.

  • Decussation in neuronal pathways

    Most sensory and motor pathways cross over (decussate) to the opposite side of the CNS, resulting in contralateral control of body functions.

  • Spinal cord gray matter organization

    Gray matter in the spinal cord forms an 'H' shape with dorsal horns (sensory interneurons), ventral horns (somatic motor neurons), and lateral horns (autonomic motor neurons in thoracic segments).

  • Spinal cord white matter fiber directions

    White matter fibers run in three directions: ascending (sensory to brain), descending (motor from brain), and transverse (commissural fibers connecting sides).

  • Function of basal nuclei

    Basal nuclei regulate movement initiation, intensity, and inhibit unwanted movements; involved in motor control, cognition, and emotion.

  • Causes and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

    Parkinson’s disease results from degeneration of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, causing tremors, rigidity, slow movement, and shuffling gait.

  • Characteristics of Alzheimer’s disease

    Alzheimer’s is a progressive brain disease marked by memory loss, confusion, beta-amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuron death leading to dementia.

  • Role of the hippocampus in memory

    The hippocampus is essential for forming new memories and consolidating short-term memory into long-term memory.

  • Sleep stages and brain wave patterns

    Sleep includes NREM (slow-wave sleep with delta waves) and REM (rapid eye movement with beta waves), both essential for restoration and memory processing.