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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 Study Guide

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Terms in this set (30)

  • Endocrine vs Nervous system

    Endocrine system uses hormones released into the bloodstream for long-term regulation. Nervous system uses electrical signals and neurotransmitters for rapid, localized communication.

  • Hypothalamus role in endocrine control

    Controls anterior pituitary via releasing/inhibiting hormones, directly releases ADH and oxytocin through posterior pituitary, and controls sympathetic output to adrenal medulla.

  • Three major chemical classes of hormones

    Amino acid derivatives, peptide hormones, and lipid derivatives (steroid hormones).

  • Hormone action mechanisms

    Amino acid-based hormones bind membrane receptors and use second messengers; steroid hormones enter cells and activate genes directly.

  • Target cell definition

    A cell that has the specific receptor to bind and respond to a particular hormone.

  • Major endocrine glands and hormones

    Examples: Hypothalamus (ADH, oxytocin), Pituitary (GH, TSH, ACTH), Thyroid (T3, T4, calcitonin), Parathyroids (PTH), Adrenal glands (epinephrine, cortisol), Pancreas (insulin, glucagon).

  • Pituitary hormone targets

    ACTH → adrenal cortex; TSH → thyroid; GH → liver/somatic tissues; PRL → mammary glands; FSH/LH → gonads; ADH → kidneys; Oxytocin → uterus and mammary glands.

  • Effects of abnormal growth hormone levels

    Excess in childhood causes gigantism, excess in adults causes acromegaly, deficiency in childhood causes dwarfism.

  • Antagonistic hormone effects example

    Parathyroid hormone (PTH) raises blood Ca2+; calcitonin lowers blood Ca2+.

  • Hormones important for growth

    Growth hormone (via somatomedins), thyroid hormones (T3/T4), insulin, and sex hormones support normal growth and development.

  • General Adaptation Syndrome phases

    1. Alarm (fight or flight), 2. Resistance (long-term adaptation), 3. Exhaustion (system failure).

  • Main functions of blood

    Transport gases, nutrients, hormones, wastes; regulate pH and ions; restrict fluid loss; defend body; stabilize temperature.

  • Plasma composition and function

    About 50–60% of blood volume, mostly water with proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen), ions, nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes.

  • Hematopoiesis

    Blood cell formation in red bone marrow from hemocytoblasts differentiating into myeloid or lymphoid stem cells.

  • Red blood cell characteristics

    Biconcave discs, no nucleus/mitochondria, lifespan ~120 days, transport O2/CO2 via hemoglobin.

  • Hemoglobin structure and function

    4 globin chains (2 alpha, 2 beta in adults), each with heme containing Fe that binds one O2 molecule.

  • Erythropoiesis regulation

    Stimulated by erythropoietin (EPO) from kidneys in response to low oxygen, promoting RBC production in bone marrow.

  • ABO blood group antigens and antibodies

    Type A: A antigen, anti-B antibody; B: B antigen, anti-A antibody; AB: A and B antigens, no antibodies; O: no antigens, anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

  • Rh factor and sensitization

    Rh+ has D antigen; Rh− lacks it and can develop anti-Rh antibodies after exposure, causing hemolytic disease in Rh− mothers with Rh+ fetuses.

  • White blood cell types and functions

    Neutrophils: bacterial phagocytosis; Lymphocytes: immune response; Monocytes: macrophages; Eosinophils: parasites/allergy; Basophils: inflammation.

  • Phases of hemostasis

    1. Vascular spasm, 2. Platelet plug formation, 3. Coagulation forming fibrin clot.

  • Heart location and chambers

    Located in mediastinum; chambers: right atrium/ventricle (pulmonary circuit), left atrium/ventricle (systemic circuit).

  • Layers of the heart wall

    Epicardium (outer), myocardium (muscle), endocardium (inner lining).

  • Blood flow through the heart

    Venae cavae → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve → systemic circulation.

  • Conducting system components

    SA node → internodal pathways → AV node → AV bundle → bundle branches → Purkinje fibers.

  • Cardiac cycle phases

    Atrial systole, ventricular systole (isovolumetric contraction and ejection), ventricular diastole (isovolumetric relaxation and filling).

  • Heart sounds S1 and S2

    S1 (lub) = AV valves close; S2 (dub) = semilunar valves close.

  • Cardiac output formula

    \(CO=HR\times SV\), where CO = cardiac output, HR = heart rate, SV = stroke volume.

  • Stroke volume formula and regulation

    \(SV=EDV-ESV\). SV increases with preload (EDV), contractility; decreases with afterload.

  • Autonomic effects on heart rate

    Sympathetic stimulation increases HR and contractility; parasympathetic stimulation decreases HR.