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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 Study Guide

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  • How are the nervous system and endocrine system similar and different?
    Both systems regulate body functions. The nervous system uses electrical signals for fast, short-term responses; the endocrine system uses hormones for slower, long-term regulation.
  • What is a paracrine cell and its function?
    A paracrine cell releases signaling molecules that affect nearby target cells without entering the bloodstream.
  • What is the overall function of the endocrine system?
    To regulate body processes by secreting hormones that control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and homeostasis.
  • What are primary endocrine organs? Give an example.
    Organs whose main function is hormone secretion, such as the thyroid gland.
  • What are hormones?
    Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands that travel through the blood to target cells.
  • What are target cells?
    Cells that have specific receptors for a hormone and respond to its signal.
  • What is a steroid hormone? Provide an example.
    A hormone derived from cholesterol that can pass through cell membranes; example: cortisol.
  • What does an increase in hormone secretion represent?
    An example of upregulation or a physiological response to maintain homeostasis.
  • What is insulin associated with? Where is it released? What is its effect?
    Insulin lowers blood glucose; released by pancreatic beta cells; it promotes glucose uptake by cells.
  • What is glucagon associated with? Where is it released? What is its effect?
    Glucagon raises blood glucose; released by pancreatic alpha cells; it stimulates glycogen breakdown in the liver.
  • Which endocrine gland is near the hypothalamus and what is their relationship?
    The pituitary gland; the hypothalamus controls pituitary hormone release via releasing and inhibiting hormones.
  • What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary and their actions?
    Includes growth hormone (stimulates growth), ACTH (stimulates adrenal cortex), TSH (stimulates thyroid), LH and FSH (stimulate gonads), prolactin (milk production).
  • What hormones are released by the posterior pituitary and their actions?
    Oxytocin (stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection) and ADH (antidiuretic hormone; promotes water retention).
  • What hormones does the hypothalamus release and their effects?
    Releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate anterior pituitary secretion, e.g., TRH, CRH, GnRH.
  • What hormones are associated with the thyroid gland?
    Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) regulate metabolism; calcitonin lowers blood calcium.
  • What influences the release of thyroid hormones?
    TSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates thyroid hormone release.
  • What is the result of hormone hypersecretion or hyposecretion? Example?
    Hypersecretion can cause disorders like gigantism; hyposecretion can cause deficiencies like hypothyroidism.
  • What are the major components of blood and their functions?
    Plasma (transports nutrients), red blood cells (carry oxygen), white blood cells (immune defense), platelets (clotting).
  • What is hematocrit?
    The percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells.
  • What is hemoglobin and its components?
    A protein in RBCs made of globin and heme groups that bind oxygen.
  • What are leukocytes and their roles?
    White blood cells involved in immune defense; types include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils.
  • How are RBCs and WBCs formed?
    RBCs form by erythropoiesis; WBCs form by leukopoiesis, both in bone marrow.
  • What is hemostasis and its phases?
    Process to stop bleeding: vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation.
  • What are the major human blood types?
    A, B, AB, and O, determined by presence or absence of A and B antigens on RBCs.
  • How is blood typing performed?
    By mixing blood with anti-A and anti-B antibodies and observing agglutination.
  • How is hemoglobin degraded and what is bilirubin?
    Hemoglobin breaks down into heme and globin; heme is converted to bilirubin, a yellow pigment processed by the liver.