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Anatomy & Physiology Exam 3 Study Review

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  • Alimentary canal vs accessory organs
    Alimentary canal is the tube food passes through (mouth to anus). Accessory organs assist digestion (teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas).
  • 6 processes of digestion
    Ingestion, propulsion, mechanical breakdown, digestion (enzymes), absorption, defecation.
  • Layers of the GI tract
    Mucosa (secretion/absorption), Submucosa (blood vessels and nerves), Muscularis externa (movement), Serosa/adventitia (outer covering).
  • Enteric nervous system (ENS) functions
    Myenteric plexus controls motility; Submucosal plexus controls secretion.
  • Salivary glands and their secretions
    Parotid: watery with enzymes; Submandibular: mixed; Sublingual: mucus. Saliva contains salivary amylase (breaks carbs) and lysozyme (kills bacteria).
  • Phases of swallowing (deglutition)
    Voluntary phase (tongue pushes food), pharyngeal phase (epiglottis closes airway), esophageal phase (peristalsis moves food).
  • Gastric gland cell types and secretions
    Mucous cells: mucus; Parietal cells: HCl and intrinsic factor; Chief cells: pepsinogen; Enteroendocrine cells: hormones like gastrin.
  • 3 phases of gastric secretion regulation
    Cephalic phase (sight/smell increases acid), gastric phase (food in stomach increases acid), intestinal phase (slows stomach activity).
  • Functions of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
    Liver produces bile; gallbladder stores bile; pancreas produces digestive enzymes.
  • Hormones regulating digestion
    Cholecystokinin (CCK) releases bile and pancreatic enzymes; Secretin releases bicarbonate.
  • Small intestine adaptations for absorption
    Villi and microvilli increase surface area for nutrient absorption.
  • Differences between small and large intestine
    Small intestine has villi for absorption; large intestine has no villi, many goblet cells, and absorbs water.
  • Gut flora roles
    Produce vitamin K, aid digestion, and protect from pathogens.
  • Defecation control
    Parasympathetic nervous system controls defecation; internal anal sphincter is involuntary; external anal sphincter is voluntary.
  • Digestion products and absorption routes
    Carbohydrates and proteins absorbed into blood; fats absorbed into lymph as chylomicrons.
  • Kidney main functions
    Filter blood, balance fluids and pH, regulate blood pressure.
  • Renal corpuscle components
    Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule; filters blood to form filtrate.
  • Nephron tubule segments
    Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), nephron loop (Loop of Henle), distal convoluted tubule (DCT), collecting duct.
  • Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) formula
    Net filtration pressure (NFP) = GHP - (GCOP + CHP), where GHP = glomerular hydrostatic pressure, GCOP = glomerular colloid osmotic pressure, CHP = capsular hydrostatic pressure.
  • Hormones affecting kidney function
    ADH increases water reabsorption; Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption; ANP increases urine output.
  • Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) triggers and effects
    Triggered by low blood pressure and low GFR; causes vasoconstriction, increased sodium and water retention, raising blood pressure.
  • Normal vs abnormal urine components
    Normal: water, urea, creatinine, H+, HCO3-, Na+, K+. Abnormal: glucose, amino acids, proteins, leukocytes, erythrocytes.
  • Male reproductive hormone effects
    Testosterone promotes male traits and sperm production; high testosterone causes negative feedback reducing LH and FSH.
  • Female ovarian cycle phases
    Follicular phase (follicle growth), ovulation (day 14, LH surge), luteal phase (progesterone production).
  • Menstrual cycle phases
    Menstrual phase, proliferative phase, secretory phase.
  • Sperm path through male reproductive system
    Testes → epididymis → vas deferens → urethra.
  • Cell secretions in digestion
    Parietal cells: HCl + intrinsic factor; Chief cells: pepsinogen; Hepatocytes: bile; Goblet cells: alkaline mucus; Acinar cells: pancreatic enzymes.
  • Defecation vs micturition sphincter control
    Both use internal sphincter (involuntary, parasympathetic) and external sphincter (voluntary, brain control).