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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Review

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  • What are the main components of the nervous system?
    The nervous system includes the Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
  • What is the function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?
    The ANS controls involuntary functions and is divided into the sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) systems.
  • What is an action potential?
    An action potential is a rapid electrical signal that travels along neurons to transmit information.
  • Name the three types of CNS tracts.
    Ascending tracts (sensory), descending tracts (motor), and commissural tracts (connect hemispheres).
  • What is the pathway and function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
    CSF circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space, providing cushioning and nutrient transport for the brain and spinal cord.
  • What are the main functions of the endocrine system?
    The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormone secretion affecting growth, metabolism, and homeostasis.
  • How do protein and steroid hormones differ in action?
    Protein hormones bind to cell surface receptors; steroid hormones pass through membranes and bind intracellular receptors.
  • What is the role of the hypothalamus in endocrine regulation?
    The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, regulating hormone release from the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.
  • What is the renin-angiotensin system?
    A hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid balance by constricting blood vessels and stimulating aldosterone release.
  • What hormones regulate blood sugar homeostasis?
    Insulin lowers blood sugar; glucagon raises blood sugar through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
  • What is cardiac output (CO) and how is it calculated?
    CO is the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute, calculated as heart rate (HR) × stroke volume (SV).
  • Define end-diastolic volume (EDV) and end-systolic volume (ESV).
    EDV is the volume of blood in ventricles before contraction; ESV is the volume remaining after contraction.
  • What is Starling's law of the heart?
    The heart pumps more forcefully when it is filled with more blood during diastole, increasing stroke volume.
  • Describe the path of blood through the heart and body.
    Blood flows from body → right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body.
  • What are the main types of blood cells and their functions?
    Red blood cells carry oxygen; white blood cells fight infection; platelets aid in clotting.
  • What is hemopoiesis?
    The process of blood cell formation from stem cells in the bone marrow.
  • What is the difference between specific and general immunity?
    Specific immunity targets particular pathogens; general immunity provides broad, nonspecific defense.
  • What is the function of memory cells in immunity?
    Memory cells remember past infections to provide faster, stronger immune responses upon re-exposure.
  • What is tidal volume in respiratory physiology?
    Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.
  • What is the pathway of air through the respiratory system?
    Air passes through the nose/mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → bronchi → lungs → alveoli.
  • What is the role of the juxtaglomerular apparatus in the urinary system?
    It regulates blood pressure and filtration rate by releasing renin in response to low blood pressure.
  • What are the main phases of the menstrual cycle?
    The menstrual cycle includes the follicular phase, ovulation, luteal phase, and menstruation.
  • What is the acrosome reaction in fertilization?
    The acrosome reaction releases enzymes from the sperm to penetrate the egg's zona pellucida.
  • What is the difference between oogenesis and spermatogenesis?
    Oogenesis produces one mature egg per cycle; spermatogenesis produces millions of sperm continuously.