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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Review

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  • Primary vs Secondary Endocrine Organs

    Primary endocrine organs produce hormones as their main function; secondary endocrine organs produce hormones but have other primary functions.

  • Difference between Endocrine and Exocrine

    Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream; exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to an epithelial surface.

  • Layers of the Adrenal Cortex and Their Functions

    The adrenal cortex has three layers: zona glomerulosa (produces mineralocorticoids), zona fasciculata (produces glucocorticoids), and zona reticularis (produces androgens).

  • Hormones Released by the Pancreas

    The pancreas releases insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels.

  • Functions of Blood

    Blood transports gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones, and helps regulate temperature and pH.

  • Five Types of Leukocytes and Their Functions

    Neutrophils (phagocytosis), Lymphocytes (immune response), Monocytes (become macrophages), Eosinophils (combat parasites), Basophils (release histamine).

  • Structure and Function of Hemoglobin

    Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that binds oxygen for transport.

  • Hematopoiesis

    Hematopoiesis is the process of blood cell formation regulated by growth factors in the bone marrow.

  • Function and Production of Platelets

    Platelets aid in blood clotting and are produced by megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.

  • Events of Hemostasis

    Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and coagulation to stop bleeding.

  • Blood Flow Through the Heart

    Blood flows: body → right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body.

  • Electrical Conduction of the Heart

    The conduction system includes the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.

  • Functions of the Lymphatic System

    The lymphatic system returns fluid to blood, absorbs fats, and aids immune defense.

  • Positive vs Negative Feedback in Endocrine System

    Negative feedback reduces hormone output to maintain balance; positive feedback amplifies hormone release.

  • Phases of Digestion

    Cephalic (anticipation), gastric (stomach activity), and intestinal (small intestine digestion) phases regulate digestion.

  • Role of Peristalsis and Segmentation

    Peristalsis moves food along the tract; segmentation mixes food for digestion and absorption.

  • Functional Unit of the Kidney

    The nephron is the kidney's functional unit responsible for filtering blood and forming urine.

  • Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

    RAAS regulates blood pressure and fluid balance by controlling vasoconstriction and sodium retention.

  • Alveolar Structure and Gas Exchange

    Alveoli are tiny sacs where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange occurs between air and blood.

  • Primary and Accessory Muscles of Ventilation

    Primary muscles: diaphragm and intercostals; accessory muscles assist during forced breathing.

  • Stages of Gamete Production

    Gamete production involves meiosis, producing haploid sperm or eggs for reproduction.

  • Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function

    Testosterone and LH regulate sperm production and secondary sex characteristics.

  • Phases of the Ovarian Cycle

    Follicular, ovulation, and luteal phases controlled by FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.

  • Function of the Corpus Luteum

    The corpus luteum produces progesterone to maintain the uterine lining after ovulation.

  • Micturition Reflex

    The micturition reflex controls bladder emptying via nervous system signals.

  • Osmolarity

    Osmolarity measures solute concentration in body fluids, affecting water movement.

  • Filtration Membrane Layers in the Kidney

    Includes fenestrated endothelium, basement membrane, and podocytes; allows plasma filtration but blocks cells and large proteins.

  • Oxygen Dissociation Curve

    Shows hemoglobin saturation with oxygen at different partial pressures, influenced by pH and CO2.

  • Bohr Effect

    Increased CO2 and decreased pH reduce hemoglobin's oxygen affinity, enhancing oxygen release to tissues.