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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Review

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  • Which glands secrete major hormones?
    Major hormone-secreting glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and gonads.
  • Which hormones increase blood sugar?
    Hormones that increase blood sugar include glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine, and growth hormone.
  • Which hormones lower blood sugar?
    Insulin is the primary hormone that lowers blood sugar.
  • What are the different formed elements in blood?
    Formed elements include red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
  • What are the different types of white blood cells (WBCs)?
    Types of WBCs include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
  • What connective tissue controls the heart valves?
    The heart valves are controlled by dense connective tissue called the fibrous skeleton.
  • Where are the major heart valves located?
    The valves are the tricuspid (right atrioventricular), mitral (left atrioventricular), pulmonary, and aortic valves.
  • What causes the three deflection waves of an EKG?
    P wave: atrial depolarization; QRS complex: ventricular depolarization; T wave: ventricular repolarization.
  • What factors affect blood flow and blood pressure?
    Factors include vessel diameter, blood viscosity, vessel length, cardiac output, and peripheral resistance.
  • Name some major arteries of the body.
    Major arteries include the aorta, carotid, subclavian, renal, femoral, and coronary arteries.
  • What is the major function of the lymphatic system?
    The lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream and participates in immune defense.
  • What are the major organs of the lymphatic system?
    Major organs include lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and lymphatic vessels.
  • What are the body’s three lines of defense?
    1st line: physical and chemical barriers; 2nd line: innate immune responses; 3rd line: adaptive immunity.
  • What are the major anatomical features of the lungs?
    Features include lobes, bronchi, alveoli, pleura (visceral and parietal), and pulmonary vessels.
  • How are respiratory gases transported by blood?
    Oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin; carbon dioxide is transported dissolved, as bicarbonate, or bound to hemoglobin.
  • Distinguish between organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs.
    Alimentary canal organs include mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines; accessory organs include liver, pancreas, gallbladder.
  • Where are most nutrients absorbed?
    Most nutrient absorption occurs in the small intestine, especially the jejunum.
  • What are the structural and functional units of the kidney?
    The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
  • How do water, ions, and electrolytes move in the nephron?
    They move by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion along different nephron segments.
  • What are the major routes by which water and electrolytes enter and leave the body?
    Water and electrolytes enter via ingestion and metabolism; leave via urine, sweat, feces, and respiration.
  • What are the outcomes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis?
    Spermatogenesis produces four viable sperm; oogenesis produces one ovum and polar bodies.
  • What is the Graafian follicle?
    The Graafian follicle is the mature ovarian follicle ready to release an egg during ovulation.
  • How does the nervous system control ejaculation and orgasm?
    Ejaculation is controlled by sympathetic and somatic nerves; orgasm involves complex neural pathways.
  • What are the ovarian and uterine cycles?
    The ovarian cycle involves follicle development; the uterine cycle involves endometrial changes for implantation.
  • What is a conceptus?
    A conceptus is the developing embryo/fetus from fertilization through gestation.
  • What are the embryonic germ layers?
    The three germ layers are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm, which form all tissues and organs.
  • What is polygenic inheritance?
    Polygenic inheritance involves multiple genes contributing to a single trait.
  • What are autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, and sex-linked inheritance?
    Autosomal recessive requires two copies of a gene; autosomal dominant requires one; sex-linked involves genes on the X chromosome.