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Anatomy & Physiology II Key Concepts

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  • Endocrine system
    A system of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.
  • Hormone
    A chemical messenger secreted by endocrine glands that affects target cells.
  • Tropic hormone
    A hormone that stimulates another endocrine gland to release its hormones.
  • Pituitary gland anatomy
    Consists of anterior and posterior lobes; the anterior uses the hypophyseal portal system for hormone transport.
  • Functions of blood
    Transport of gases, nutrients, wastes; regulation of pH and temperature; protection via clotting and immune responses.
  • Composition of plasma
    Mostly water with dissolved proteins (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen), nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
  • Erythrocytes
    Red blood cells that transport oxygen via hemoglobin and lack nuclei.
  • Leukocytes
    White blood cells involved in immune defense; include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils.
  • Platelets
    Cell fragments that aid in blood clotting and hemostasis.
  • Hemostasis
    The process of blood clot formation to stop bleeding, involving vascular spasm, platelet plug, and coagulation.
  • Heart location
    Located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, behind the sternum.
  • Cardiac conduction system
    Includes SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers to coordinate heartbeats.
  • Cardiac output formula
    Cardiac output = heart rate × stroke volume.
  • Blood vessel types
    Arteries (elastic, muscular, arterioles), veins (venules, veins), and capillaries (continuous, fenestrated, sinusoids).
  • Lymphatic system function
    Returns interstitial fluid to blood, absorbs fats, and provides immune defense.
  • Innate immunity
    Nonspecific defense mechanisms like barriers, phagocytes, inflammation, and fever.
  • Adaptive immunity
    Specific immune response involving lymphocytes and antibodies.
  • Respiratory system major function
    Gas exchange between air and blood, regulation of blood pH, and vocalization.
  • Digestive system layers
    Four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa/adventitia.
  • Nephron function
    Filters blood to form urine, reabsorbs needed substances, and secretes wastes.
  • Micturition reflex
    The process of urine elimination controlled by the nervous system and bladder muscles.
  • Acid-base balance
    Maintaining blood pH via respiratory and renal mechanisms to prevent acidosis or alkalosis.
  • Oogenesis
    The process of egg cell development in females, producing haploid ova.
  • Spermatogenesis
    The process of sperm cell development in males, producing haploid spermatozoa.
  • Hormones in male reproduction
    Testosterone regulates sperm production and secondary sex characteristics.
  • Hormones in female reproduction
    Estrogen and progesterone regulate the ovarian and uterine cycles and secondary sex characteristics.
  • Electrocardiogram (EKG) waves
    P wave: atrial depolarization; QRS complex: ventricular depolarization; T wave: ventricular repolarization.
  • Minute ventilation calculation
    Minute ventilation = tidal volume × breathing rate.