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Anatomy & Physiology: Nervous System and Special Senses Study Guide

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  • What embryonic structure do the spinal cord and brain develop from?
    They develop from the neural tube in the embryo.
  • Name the three primary brain vesicles and their general contents.
    Proencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain), and rhomboencephalon (hindbrain).
  • What are the meninges from most superficial to deepest?
    Dura mater (most superficial), arachnoid mater (middle), and pia mater (deepest).
  • Where is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) found?
    CSF is found in the choroid plexuses, ventricles, central canal, and surrounding the CNS.
  • What is the blood-brain barrier and its main function?
    A protective barrier formed by tight junctions that maintains a stable brain environment by selectively allowing nutrients and ions.
  • Name the five lobes of the cerebrum.
    Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and insula (deep to other lobes).
  • What separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe?
    The central sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes.
  • Define fissures, sulci, and gyri in the cerebrum.
    Fissures are deep grooves, sulci are shallow grooves, and gyri are elevated ridges.
  • Name the ventricles of the brain and which is in the diencephalon.
    Two lateral ventricles, third ventricle (in diencephalon), and fourth ventricle.
  • What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
    CSF cushions the brain, maintains ionic balance, lightens brain weight, and absorbs shock.
  • What structures make up the brainstem and their functions?
    Midbrain (visual and auditory reflexes), pons (relay and respiratory control), medulla oblongata (vital centers for heart rate, respiration, blood pressure).
  • What is the main function of the frontal lobe?
    Contains primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, frontal eye field, Broca's area, and is involved in intelligence and abstract reasoning.
  • Where is gray matter found in the brain and spinal cord?
    In the brain, gray matter is in the cerebral cortex and basal nuclei; in the spinal cord, it forms the central butterfly-shaped area.
  • What is the function of the thalamus?
    Acts as a relay station that sorts, edits, and forwards sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
  • What are the main functions of the hypothalamus?
    Controls blood pressure, heart rate, respiration, pupil size, emotional response, temperature, hunger, thirst, and hormonal activity via the pituitary gland.
  • What is hemispheric lateralization?
    Each cerebral hemisphere specializes in certain tasks, but both work together.
  • What is decussation and where does it occur?
    Crossing over of corticospinal tracts at the medulla oblongata; right brain controls left body and vice versa.
  • What is the function of the cerebellum?
    Subconscious proprioception and coordination of precise timing and patterns of skeletal muscle contractions.
  • What are basal nuclei and their function?
    Groups of CNS cell bodies involved in controlling subconscious motor activity.
  • What neurotransmitter is released by all preganglionic fibers in the autonomic nervous system?
    Acetylcholine, which is excitatory.
  • What neurotransmitter is released by postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic division?
    Epinephrine (adrenaline).
  • What is dual innervation in the autonomic nervous system?
    Both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions innervate the same organ and have antagonistic effects.
  • What are the general effects of the sympathetic nervous system?
    Dilation of pupils, increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, bronchodilation, decreased digestion, and glucose release.
  • What are the general effects of the parasympathetic nervous system?
    Pupil constriction, decreased heart rate, increased digestion, bronchoconstriction, and stimulation of gland secretions.
  • Where does the sympathetic nervous system exit the CNS?
    From the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord.
  • Where does the parasympathetic nervous system exit the CNS?
    From the cranial and sacral regions.
  • What are the 12 cranial nerves and their primary functions?
    I Olfactory (sensory), II Optic (sensory), III Oculomotor (motor), IV Trochlear (motor), V Trigeminal (mixed), VI Abducens (motor), VII Facial (mixed), VIII Vestibulocochlear (sensory), IX Glossopharyngeal (mixed), X Vagus (mixed), XI Accessory (motor), XII Hypoglossal (motor).
  • What is the function of the muscle spindle?
    A proprioceptor that initiates the stretch reflex by causing contraction of the stretched muscle.
  • What is the pathway of sound through the ear?
    Pinna → external auditory canal → tympanic membrane → ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) → oval window → cochlea (Organ of Corti).
  • What receptor senses hearing and which cranial nerve carries this information?
    The Organ of Corti in the cochlea senses hearing; the cochlear nerve (part of CN VIII) carries the signal.
  • What receptor senses rotational acceleration of the head?
    Crista ampullaris within the semicircular canals.
  • What receptor senses head position relative to gravity?
    Macula located in the utricle and saccule of the vestibule.
  • What causes glaucoma?
    Blocked drainage of aqueous humor leading to increased intraocular pressure.
  • What is presbyopia?
    Age-related loss of lens elasticity causing difficulty focusing on close objects.
  • What is myopia and its corrective lens?
    Nearsightedness; corrected with a concave lens.
  • What is hyperopia and its corrective lens?
    Farsightedness; corrected with a convex lens.
  • Which cranial nerves carry taste sensations from the tongue?
    Facial nerve (VII) anterior 2/3, Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) posterior 1/3, Vagus nerve (X) epiglottis and pharynx.