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Anatomy & Physiology: Nervous System and Vertebral Curvatures

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  • Primary and secondary curvatures of the vertebral column

    Primary curvatures are the thoracic and sacral curves present at birth. Secondary curvatures are the cervical and lumbar curves that develop after birth to help with upright posture.

  • Irregular curvatures of the vertebral column

    Scoliosis: lateral curvature; Kyphosis: exaggerated thoracic curve; Lordosis: exaggerated lumbar curve.

  • Functions of the nervous system

    Includes sensory input, integration, and motor output to control body functions and respond to stimuli.

  • Divisions of the nervous system

    CNS: brain and spinal cord; PNS: all nerves outside CNS, subdivided into sensory and motor divisions.

  • Sensory vs Motor nervous system

    Sensory (afferent) carries signals to CNS; Motor (efferent) carries signals from CNS to effectors.

  • Somatic vs Visceral nervous system

    Somatic controls voluntary muscles; Visceral (autonomic) controls involuntary muscles and glands.

  • Levels of organization in the nervous system

    Includes receptor level, circuit level, and perceptual level for processing sensory information.

  • Neuroglia cells and their main functions

    Support neurons: Astrocytes (support, blood-brain barrier), Oligodendrocytes (myelinate CNS), Microglia (immune defense), Ependymal cells (CSF production), Schwann cells (myelinate PNS), Satellite cells (support PNS neurons).

  • Structure and function of neurons

    Neurons have a cell body, dendrites (receive signals), and an axon (transmits signals).

  • Function of myelin and cells forming it

    Myelin insulates axons to speed signal conduction; formed by Schwann cells in PNS and oligodendrocytes in CNS.

  • Nodes of Ranvier

    Gaps in myelin sheath where ion channels are concentrated, enabling saltatory conduction of action potentials.

  • Structural classification of neurons

    Includes multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons based on number of processes.

  • Functional classification of neurons

    Sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), and interneurons based on signal direction and function.

  • Resting membrane potential

    Electrical potential across membrane at rest, typically around \(-70\,mV\), maintained by ion gradients and permeability.

  • Forces responsible for resting potential

    Chemical gradient and electrical gradient for ions, mainly K+ and Na+, maintain resting potential.

  • Difference in ionic composition inside vs outside cell

    Intracellular fluid high in K+, extracellular fluid high in Na+ and Cl-.

  • Depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization

    Depolarization: membrane potential becomes less negative; repolarization: returns to resting; hyperpolarization: more negative than resting.

  • Graded potential vs action potential

    Graded potentials vary in magnitude and decay with distance; action potentials are all-or-none, propagate without decay.

  • Phases of an action potential

    Includes resting, depolarization (Na+ channels open), repolarization (K+ channels open), and hyperpolarization phases.

  • Propagation of action potential

    Action potentials propagate along axon by sequential opening of voltage-gated channels, enabling signal transmission.

  • Absolute and relative refractory periods

    Absolute refractory: no new AP possible; relative refractory: new AP possible with stronger stimulus.

  • Synapse structure and function

    Junction between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals to postsynaptic cells.

  • Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

    Excitatory depolarize postsynaptic membrane; inhibitory hyperpolarize it, affecting likelihood of AP.

  • Summation of postsynaptic potentials

    Multiple EPSPs and IPSPs combine spatially or temporally to influence postsynaptic neuron firing.

  • Synaptic potentiation and presynaptic inhibition

    Potentiation increases synaptic strength; presynaptic inhibition reduces neurotransmitter release.

  • Function and mechanism of acetylcholine

    Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that binds receptors to excite or inhibit postsynaptic cells, important in muscle activation.

  • Major lobes of the brain and their functions

    Frontal: motor control, decision making; Parietal: sensory processing; Occipital: vision; Temporal: auditory; Insula: visceral sensation.

  • Cerebral cortex location and function

    Outer layer of cerebrum responsible for conscious thought, sensory perception, and voluntary motor control.

  • Types of cerebral white matter fibers

    Association fibers connect areas within same hemisphere; commissural fibers connect hemispheres; projection fibers connect cortex to lower brain/spinal cord.

  • Basal nuclei function

    Regulate voluntary motor control, procedural learning, and movement coordination.

  • Diencephalon components and thalamus function

    Diencephalon includes thalamus and hypothalamus; thalamus relays sensory and motor signals to cerebral cortex.

  • Functions of the hypothalamus

    Regulates autonomic functions, endocrine system, temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotional responses.