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Anatomy & Physiology: Reproductive, Development, and Endocrine Systems

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  • Primary organs of the male reproductive system

    Testes are the primary male reproductive organs responsible for sperm production and testosterone secretion.

  • Primary organs of the female reproductive system

    Ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs that produce oocytes and secrete estrogen and progesterone.

  • Definition of spermatogenesis

    Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm cell development occurring in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.

  • Definition of oogenesis

    Oogenesis is the process of egg (oocyte) development in the ovaries, beginning before birth and completing after puberty.

  • Hormones involved in male reproduction

    Testosterone regulates sperm production and secondary sexual characteristics; LH stimulates testosterone secretion; FSH supports spermatogenesis.

  • Hormones involved in female reproduction

    Estrogen and progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle and pregnancy; LH triggers ovulation; FSH stimulates follicle development.

  • Six steps of sperm penetration during fertilization

    Steps include corona radiata penetration, zona pellucida binding, acrosomal reaction, zona pellucida penetration, membrane fusion, and cortical reaction to prevent polyspermy.

  • Three germ layers formed during embryonic development

    Ectoderm forms skin and nervous system; mesoderm forms muscles, bones, and circulatory system; endoderm forms internal organs like the digestive tract.

  • Primitive organs formed by endodermal differentiation

    The endoderm forms the lining of the digestive and respiratory tracts, liver, pancreas, and other internal organs.

  • Differences in circulation between fetus and newborn

    Fetal circulation includes shunts like the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus to bypass lungs; these close after birth to establish normal pulmonary circulation.

  • Key developmental events of the fetal period

    Includes rapid growth, organ maturation, development of body systems, and preparation for independent life after birth.

  • Effects of pregnancy on the mother

    Includes hormonal changes, increased blood volume, altered metabolism, and physical changes to support fetal development.

  • Organs involved in the endocrine system

    Includes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.

  • Hormones produced by the anterior pituitary and their functions

    Growth hormone (GH) stimulates growth; TSH stimulates thyroid; ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex; FSH and LH regulate gonads; Prolactin stimulates milk production.

  • Hormones produced by the posterior pituitary and their functions

    Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection; Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates water balance by increasing kidney water reabsorption.

  • Hormones produced by the adrenal gland and their functions

    Adrenal cortex produces corticosteroids like cortisol (stress response) and aldosterone (salt balance); adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (fight or flight response).