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Anatomy & Physiology: Skeletal, Muscular, and Nervous Systems

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  • Compact bone vs. Spongy bone

    Compact bone is dense and forms the outer layer of bones, providing strength. Spongy bone is porous and found inside bones, containing marrow and reducing bone weight.

  • Axial skeleton

    The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, supporting the central axis of the body.

  • Appendicular skeleton

    The appendicular skeleton consists of the limbs and girdles (shoulder and pelvic), enabling movement.

  • Main functions of the central nervous system (CNS)

    The CNS processes sensory information, controls motor functions, and integrates data to coordinate body activities.

  • Steps involved in muscle contraction

    Muscle contraction involves excitation, excitation-contraction coupling, and contraction phases.

  • Excitation in muscle physiology

    Excitation is the process where a nerve impulse triggers the release of neurotransmitters to stimulate a muscle fiber.

  • Excitation-contraction coupling

    This phase links the muscle fiber excitation to contraction by releasing calcium ions that enable actin-myosin interaction.

  • Muscle contraction phase

    During contraction, actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, shortening the muscle fiber and generating force.

  • Peripheral nervous system (PNS) components

    The PNS includes all nerves outside the CNS, transmitting signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.

  • Function of nerves in the PNS

    Nerves in the PNS carry sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

  • Muscle system regions covered

    Muscles studied include those in the head and neck, trunk, upper limb, and lower limb.

  • Brain parts studied in dissection

    Key brain parts covered include those visible in the sheep brain dissection, excluding the cow eye.

  • Difference between origins and insertions in muscles

    Origins are fixed attachment points; insertions are movable attachment points. Origins and insertions were not required to be memorized.

  • Role of calcium ions in muscle contraction

    Calcium ions bind to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move and expose binding sites for myosin on actin filaments.

  • Skeletal system parts explored in PAL 4.0

    Explored parts include the axial and appendicular skeleton, excluding human cadaver and histology sections.

  • Muscular system parts explored in PAL 4.0

    Explored parts include muscles of the head and neck, trunk, upper limb, and lower limb, excluding cadaver and histology.

  • Nervous system parts explored in PAL 4.0

    Explored parts include the sheep brain dissection images and labels; cow eye information is excluded.

  • Function of the vertebral column

    The vertebral column supports the body, protects the spinal cord, and allows flexible movement.

  • Role of neurotransmitters in muscle excitation

    Neurotransmitters like acetylcholine transmit nerve impulses across the neuromuscular junction to initiate muscle excitation.

  • Difference between axial and appendicular skeleton functions

    The axial skeleton supports and protects vital organs; the appendicular skeleton facilitates movement.