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Anatomy & Physiology: Urinary System and Kidney Function

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  • Cystocele

    Herniation of the urinary bladder into the vagina, often due to tearing of pelvic floor muscles during childbirth.

  • Cystoscopy

    Procedure using a thin viewing tube inserted through the urethra to examine the bladder’s mucosal surface.

  • Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus

    Increased urine production caused by lack of ADH receptors in the collecting duct.

  • Intravenous pyelogram (IVP)

    X-ray of kidneys, ureters, and bladder after intravenous injection of contrast medium.

  • Nephritic syndrome

    Cluster of signs from glomerulonephritis: hematuria, mild proteinuria, hypertension, oliguria, and increased nitrogenous wastes in blood.

  • Nephrotic syndrome

    Severe proteinuria, edema, and lipid metabolism abnormalities caused by glomerular diseases.

  • Renal hilum

    Medial kidney cleft where ureter, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter and exit.

  • Three layers surrounding the kidney

    Renal fascia (anchors kidney), perirenal fat capsule (cushions kidney), fibrous capsule (prevents infection spread).

  • Renal cortex

    Superficial, light-colored, granular region of the kidney containing renal corpuscles.

  • Renal medulla

    Darker, reddish-brown region with cone-shaped renal pyramids containing urine-collecting tubules and capillaries.

  • Renal pelvis and calyces

    Funnel-shaped pelvis collects urine from minor and major calyces and drains into ureter.

  • Nephron

    Structural and functional unit of the kidney that forms urine; consists of renal corpuscle and renal tubule.

  • Glomerulus

    Tuft of fenestrated capillaries in the renal corpuscle specialized for filtration.

  • Filtration membrane layers

    Fenestrated endothelium, basement membrane, and podocyte foot processes with filtration slits.

  • Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

    Volume of filtrate formed per minute by all glomeruli; depends on net filtration pressure, surface area, and membrane permeability.

  • Renal autoregulation mechanisms

    Myogenic mechanism (arteriole constriction/dilation) and tubuloglomerular feedback (macula densa sensing NaCl).

  • Juxtaglomerular complex (JGC)

    Region with macula densa, granular cells (renin-secreting), and extraglomerular mesangial cells regulating filtration and blood pressure.

  • Tubular reabsorption routes

    Transcellular (through cells) and paracellular (between cells) pathways for reclaiming substances from filtrate.

  • Role of sodium in tubular reabsorption

    Active transport of Na+ drives reabsorption of water and other solutes via electrochemical gradients.

  • Countercurrent multiplier

    Nephron loop mechanism where descending limb is permeable to water and ascending limb actively pumps out NaCl, creating medullary osmotic gradient.

  • Countercurrent exchanger

    Vasa recta blood flow preserves medullary osmotic gradient by passive exchange of water and solutes.

  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) effect

    Increases water permeability in collecting ducts by inserting aquaporins, concentrating urine during dehydration.

  • Aldosterone function

    Promotes Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion in distal tubule and collecting duct, increasing blood volume and pressure.

  • Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

    Reduces Na+ reabsorption in collecting ducts, lowering blood volume and pressure.

  • Renal clearance

    Volume of plasma cleared of a substance per minute; used to measure kidney function and GFR.

  • Micturition reflex

    Bladder stretch activates spinal reflex causing detrusor contraction and sphincter relaxation to void urine.

  • Differences in male and female urethra

    Male urethra is longer with prostatic, intermediate, and spongy parts; female urethra is shorter and opens anterior to vagina.

  • Common urinary system congenital anomalies

    Horseshoe kidney, hypospadias (urethral opening on penis ventral surface), and polycystic kidney disease.