Anatomy & Physiology: Blood, Heart, Blood Vessels, and Respiratory System Study Guide

Lab 2 – Blood

Testable Objectives

This section covers the fundamental aspects of blood, including its composition, cellular elements, and clinical evaluation.

• Basic Functions of Blood: Blood transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products; regulates pH, temperature, and fluid balance; and provides protection through immune responses and clotting.

• Major Components of Blood: Blood consists of plasma (the liquid matrix) and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets).

• Formed Elements of Blood:

  • Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

  • Leukocytes (White Blood Cells): Defend against pathogens.

  • Platelets (Thrombocytes): Involved in blood clotting.

• Blood Smear Slide Identification: Erythrocytes appear as biconcave discs, leukocytes are larger with visible nuclei, and platelets are small cell fragments.

• Differentiation of Leukocytes:

  • Granulocytes: Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils (contain granules in cytoplasm).

  • Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes, monocytes (lack visible granules).

• Structure and Function of Formed Elements: Each type of cell has a unique structure suited to its function (e.g., erythrocytes lack nuclei to maximize space for hemoglobin).

• Differential White Blood Cell Count: A laboratory test that determines the percentage of each type of white blood cell in a sample, useful for diagnosing infections and diseases.

• ABO and Rh Blood Groups: Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of antigens (A, B, Rh) on erythrocyte surfaces. Compatibility is crucial for transfusions.

• Blood Transfusion Compatibility: Matching donor and recipient blood types prevents immune reactions.

Lab 3 – The Heart

Testable Objectives

This section focuses on the anatomy and physiology of the heart, including its structure, blood flow, and electrical activity.

• Major Anatomical Features: The heart consists of four chambers (right/left atria and ventricles), valves (tricuspid, bicuspid/mitral, pulmonary, aortic), and associated vessels.

• Blood Flow Through the Heart: Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, right ventricle, lungs (for oxygenation), left atrium, left ventricle, and out to the body.

• Histology of Cardiac Tissue: Cardiac muscle cells are striated, branched, and interconnected by intercalated discs, allowing synchronized contraction.

• Electrical Activity of the Heart: The heart's rhythm is controlled by the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.

• Cardiac Cycle (Additional info): The cardiac cycle includes systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) phases, ensuring efficient blood flow.

Lab 4 – Blood Vessels

Testable Objectives

This section examines the structure and function of blood vessels, including arteries, veins, and capillaries, as well as their histological differences and clinical relevance.

• Structure & Function of Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries:

  • Arteries: Thick-walled, elastic vessels that carry blood away from the heart under high pressure.

  • Veins: Thinner-walled vessels with valves, returning blood to the heart under lower pressure.

  • Capillaries: Microscopic vessels where exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes occurs.

• Blood Vessel Walls: Composed of three layers: tunica intima (inner), tunica media (middle, smooth muscle), and tunica externa (outer, connective tissue).

• Histological Differences: Arteries have thicker tunica media; veins have larger lumens and valves; capillaries have only a thin endothelium.

• Major Arteries and Veins: Includes the aorta, carotid arteries, jugular veins, vena cava, etc.

• Clinical Tests: Blood pressure measurement, pulse assessment, and vascular imaging are used to evaluate vessel health.

• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) and Blood Pressure/Pulse Rate (Additional info): The ANS regulates vessel diameter and heart rate, influencing blood pressure and pulse.

Lab 5 – Respiratory System

Testable Objectives

This section covers the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, including its structure, function, and regulation.

• Structures of the Respiratory System: Includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs.

• Pathway of Air: Air enters through the nose/mouth, passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, and reaches the alveoli for gas exchange.

• Histology of the Respiratory System: The respiratory tract is lined with ciliated epithelium and goblet cells; alveoli are composed of simple squamous epithelium for efficient gas exchange.

• Anatomical and Physiological Changes with Inhalation and Exhalation: Inhalation involves diaphragm contraction and chest expansion; exhalation is usually passive as muscles relax.

• Respiratory Volumes and Capacities:

  • Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath.

  • Vital Capacity (VC): Maximum amount of air exhaled after a maximal inhalation.

  • Residual Volume (RV): Air remaining in lungs after maximal exhalation.

• Regulation of Respiration (Additional info): The medulla oblongata and pons regulate breathing rate in response to CO2, O2, and pH levels.

• Effects of Blood Gases: Increased CO2 or decreased pH stimulates increased respiratory rate; O2 levels also play a role.