Anatomy & Physiology: Chapter 1 Study Notes

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Medical Terminology

Medical terminology forms the foundation for understanding anatomy and physiology. Terms are constructed from roots, prefixes, and suffixes, each contributing to the meaning of the word.

• Root: The core meaning of the word, often indicating the organ or system.

• Prefix: Placed at the beginning of a word, indicating location, time, number, or status.

• Suffix: Added to the end of a word, indicating condition, procedure, disorder, or disease.

• Combining vowels: Used to make words easier to pronounce.

• Common prefixes and roots:

  • Cyan-: Blue

  • Cyto-: Cell

  • Inter-: Between

  • Intra-: Within, inside

  • Myo-: Muscle

  • Osteo-: Bone

  • Cardi-: Heart

  • Itis: Inflammation

  • Gastro-: Stomach

  • Arthro-: Joint

  • -scopy: Viewing

  • -algia: Pain

  • -pathy: Disease, disorder

  • -megaly: Enlargement

  • Neuro-: Brain, nerve

  • Para-: Next to

  • Hypo-: Below

  • Hyper-: Above

  • Chondr-: Cartilage

  • Inguinal: The hips (bony part of pelvis)

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields that study the structure and function of the human body.

• Anatomy: The study of body structure; what things are.

  • Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: Structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., organs, bones).

  • Microscopic anatomy: Structures not visible without magnification.

    • Cytology: Study of cells.

    • Histology: Study of tissues and the structures they form.

  • Developmental anatomy: Study of structural changes throughout the lifespan.

• Physiology: The study of body function; how things work.

  • Exercise physiology: Changes in cells and function during physical activity.

  • Pathophysiology: Study of disease development and its effects on function.

  • Molecular physiology: Study of individual molecules such as proteins and DNA.

Levels of Structural Organization

The human body is organized into hierarchical levels, each building upon the previous.

• Chemical: Atoms and molecules.

• Cellular: Cells and organelles.

• Tissue: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organ: Structures composed of two or more tissue types.

• Organ system: Groups of organs working together.

• Organism: The complete living being.

The 11 Organ Systems

The body is composed of 11 organ systems, each with specific functions essential for survival.

• Integumentary system: External body coverage, protection, boundary formation, sweat and oil glands.

• Skeletal system: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood formation.

• Muscular system: Movement, posture, heat production.

• Nervous system: Fast-acting control system; brain, spinal cord, nerves.

• Endocrine system: Slow-acting control system; glands, hormones.

• Cardiovascular system: Heart, blood vessels; transports blood, oxygen, nutrients.

• Lymphatic and immune system: Returns fluids, protects against infection.

• Respiratory system: Gas exchange, oxygen supply, carbon dioxide removal.

• Digestive system: Food breakdown, nutrient absorption, waste elimination.

• Urinary system: Waste removal, water and acid/base balance.

• Reproductive system: Production of offspring.

8 Necessary Life Functions

To maintain life, the body must perform several essential functions.

• Maintaining boundaries: Separation between internal and external environments (e.g., skin, cell membranes).

• Movement: Locomotion, movement of substances.

• Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli.

• Digestion: Breakdown of food for absorption.

• Metabolism: Chemical reactions in the body.

• Excretion: Removal of wastes.

• Reproduction: Cellular division and production of offspring.

• Growth: Increase in size and number of cells.

5 Needs for Survival

Humans require certain environmental factors to survive.

• Nutrients: Food for energy and cell building.

• Oxygen: Required for ATP (energy) production.

• Water: Most abundant chemical in the body; prevents dehydration.

• Normal body temperature: Allows enzymes to function properly.

• Appropriate atmospheric pressure: Necessary for proper oxygen exchange.

Standard Anatomical Position

The standard anatomical position is used as a reference for describing locations and directions on the body.

• Superior (cranial): Towards the head.

• Inferior (caudal): Towards the feet.

• Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or trunk.

• Distal: Farther from the point of attachment.

• Medial: Toward the midline.

• Lateral: Away from the midline.

• Superficial: Closer to the surface.

• Deep: Further from the surface.

• Ipsilateral: Same side of the body.

• Contralateral: Opposite side of the body.

• Axial: Head, neck, torso.

• Appendicular: Limbs.

Body Planes

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

• Sagittal plane: Divides body into right and left parts.

  • Midsagittal: Directly down the midline.

  • Parasagittal: Offset from the midline.

• Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

• Transverse (axial) plane: Divides body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

Body Cavities

Body cavities protect organs and allow for organ movement and expansion.

• Dorsal cavity:

  • Cranial cavity: Contains the brain.

  • Vertebral cavity: Contains the spinal cord.

• Ventral cavity:

  • Thoracic cavity: Contains heart and lungs; separated by the diaphragm.

  • Abdominopelvic cavity: Contains abdominal and pelvic organs.

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic area is divided for clinical and anatomical reference.

• Regions:

  • Right hypochondriac

  • Left hypochondriac

  • Right lumbar

  • Left lumbar

  • Right iliac (inguinal)

  • Left iliac (inguinal)

  • Epigastric

  • Umbilical

  • Hypogastric

• Quadrants:

  • Right upper quadrant

  • Left upper quadrant

  • Right lower quadrant

  • Left lower quadrant

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Stability: Maintained by the nervous (fast) and endocrine (slow) systems.

• Control system components:

  • Receptor: Detects changes and sends information.

  • Control center: Processes information and determines response.

  • Effector: Carries out the response to restore balance.

• Feedback mechanisms:

  • Negative feedback: Brings conditions back to normal (e.g., temperature regulation).

  • Positive feedback: Amplifies changes until a process is completed (e.g., labor, blood clotting).

Chapter 2: Chemistry in Anatomy & Physiology

Basic Chemistry Concepts

Chemistry underlies all physiological processes, including energy use and molecular interactions.

• What: Study of molecules such as lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids.

• Why: Explains how molecules interact and how energy is stored and released.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical: Molecules and atoms.

• Cellular: Cells and organelles.

• Tissue: Collection of cells.

• Organ: Skin, heart, kidney, etc.

• Organ system: 11 organ systems.

• Organism: Human body.

Matter and Its States

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It exists in three states:

• Solid: Definite shape and volume (e.g., bones, teeth).

• Liquid: Definite volume, no definite shape (e.g., plasma, intercellular fluid).

• Gas: No definite shape or volume (e.g., air).

Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work or cause change. It exists in various forms:

• Kinetic energy: Energy of motion.

• Potential energy: Stored energy.

• Chemical energy: Stored in bonds of molecules; released during chemical reactions.

• Electrical energy: Movement of charged particles.

• Mechanical energy: Directly involved in moving matter.

• Radiant energy: Energy that travels in waves (e.g., light).

In the body, chemical energy from food is converted to ATP, which can be transformed into other energy forms.

• ATP (adenosine triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell. $\text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{Energy}$

Water

Water is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body, accounting for about 60% of body weight.

• Properties:

  • High heat capacity: Absorbs and releases heat slowly.

  • Polarity: Universal solvent for solutes.

  • Chemical reactivity: Participates in many reactions.

  • Cushioning: Protects organs (e.g., cerebrospinal fluid).

Inorganic Compounds

• Electrolytes: Substances that dissociate into ions in water, conducting electricity.

• Acids and Bases:

  • Acids: Release hydrogen ions (H+); proton donors.

  • Bases: Release hydroxide ions (OH-); proton acceptors.

Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissociates in water to release H+ and Cl- ions.

*Additional info: Some content was expanded for clarity and completeness, including definitions and examples for key terms and processes.*