Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 Review: Study Guide and Key Concepts

Chapter 1: An Introduction to Anatomy

Overview of Anatomical Study

Anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of living organisms. It is divided into several subfields, each focusing on different aspects or methods of studying the body.

• Comparative Anatomy: Examines structural differences among various animal species.

• Surface Anatomy: Focuses on the general form, morphology, and superficial anatomical markings.

• Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures that cannot be seen without magnification.

• Cytology: Study of cells.

• Cross-Sectional Anatomy: Uses imaging techniques (e.g., CT, MRI) to view cross sections of the body.

• Histology: Study of tissues.

• Clinical Anatomy: Focuses on pathological changes during illness.

• Superficial Anatomy: Refers to the general form and superficial anatomical markings.

• Systemic Anatomy: Study of anatomy one organ system at a time.

• Developmental Anatomy: Study of the first two months of development.

• Surgical Anatomy: Studies anatomical landmarks important for surgical procedures.

• Regional Anatomy: Considers all structures in a specific area of the body.

• Radiographic Anatomy: Uses radiographic techniques to study anatomical structures.

• Gross Anatomy: Study of structures visible to the unaided eye.

• Embryology: Study of development from fertilization to birth.

Body Planes and Anatomical Directions

Body planes and anatomical directions are essential for describing locations and movements in the body.

• Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Cuts the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) halves.

• Sagittal Plane: Cuts the body into left and right portions.

• Midsagittal Plane: Cuts the body equally into left and right halves.

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Cuts the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions.

• Cranial: Toward the head

• Caudal: Toward the tail

• Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back

• Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front

• Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment

• Distal: Farther from the point of attachment

• Medial: Toward the midline

• Lateral: Away from the midline

• Superficial: Toward the surface

• Deep: Away from the surface

Additional info: Anatomical directions are always described relative to the anatomical position (standing, facing forward, palms up).

Cell Structure and Function

Cell Types

• Somatic Cells: All body cells except sex cells.

• Sex Cells: Sperm and egg cells (gametes).

Plasmalemma (Cell Membrane)

The plasmalemma is the outer boundary of the cell, controlling movement of substances in and out.

• Functions:

  • Physical isolation

  • Regulation of exchange with the environment

  • Sensitivity to the environment

  • Structural support

• Passive Transport: Movement of substances without energy input.

  • Diffusion

  • Osmosis

  • Facilitated diffusion

  • Filtration

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances.

  • Exocytosis: Expulsion of materials from the cell.

  • Endocytosis: Uptake of materials into the cell.

    • Phagocytosis: "Cell eating"; engulfing large particles.

    • Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking"; uptake of fluids.

    • Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Specific uptake using receptors.

Membranous Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains DNA, regulates cell function, and protein synthesis.

• Mitochondria: "Powerhouse of the cell"; double-membraned, produces ATP.

• Golgi Apparatus: Storage, alteration, and packaging of secretions.

• Lysosomes: Contain enzymes to digest unwanted substances; perform autolysis.

• Peroxisomes: Contain enzymes to remove peroxides; abundant in the liver.

Non-Membranous Organelles

• Ribosomes: Complexes of RNA and protein; site of protein synthesis.

• Cytoskeleton: Network of proteins for flexibility, strength, and support.

  • Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, thick filaments, microtubules

• Centrioles: Barrel-shaped microtubules; help pull chromosomes apart during cell division.

• Cilia: Small, tail-like projections that sweep fluids or secretions across the cell surface.

• Flagella: One or two long tails that propel the cell (e.g., sperm).

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of interphase (G1, S, G2) and mitosis. Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells divide to produce two identical daughter cells.

• Interphase: Cell grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for division.

• Mitosis: Includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Chapter 3: Tissues

Overview of Tissue Types

The human body is composed of four basic tissue types:

• Epithelial Tissue

• Connective Tissue

• Muscle Tissue

• Nervous Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. It is classified by the number of layers and the shape of cells.

	Squamous	Cuboidal	Columnar
Simple (one layer)	Function: Diffusion, filtration Location: Alveoli, blood vessels Structure: Flat, thin cells	Function: Secretion, absorption Location: Kidney tubules Structure: Cube-shaped cells	Function: Absorption, secretion Location: Digestive tract Structure: Tall, column-like cells
Stratified (multiple layers)	Function: Protection Location: Skin, mouth Structure: Multiple layers of flat cells	Function: Protection, secretion Location: Sweat glands Structure: Multiple layers of cube-shaped cells	Function: Protection, secretion Location: Male urethra Structure: Multiple layers of column-like cells

	Transitional	Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar
Function	Stretching, permits distension	Secretion, movement of mucus
Location	Urinary bladder	Respiratory tract
Structure	Multiple layers, dome-shaped cells	Appears layered, all cells touch basement membrane, cilia present

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is specialized for communication via electrical and chemical signals. The main cell type is the neuron, which consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

• Function: Transmit electrical impulses

• Location: Brain, spinal cord, nerves

• Structure: Large cell body with branching dendrites and a long axon

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs. It is classified as proper, fluid, or supporting connective tissue.

• Fluid connective tissue: Has blood and lymph

• Supporting connective tissue: Has cartilage and bone

	Areolar	Adipose	Reticular
Function	Wraps, cushions organs	Stores fat, insulates	Supports other cells
Location	Under epithelia	Under skin, around organs	Lymphoid organs
Composition	Collagen, elastic fibers	Fat cells	Reticular fibers

	Regular	Irregular	Elastic
Function	Attaches muscles to bones	Withstands tension	Allows recoil
Location	Tendons, ligaments	Dermis of skin	Walls of arteries
Composition	Parallel collagen fibers	Irregular collagen fibers	Elastic fibers

Cartilage Types

	Hyaline	Fibrous	Elastic
Function	Support, flexibility	Resists compression	Maintains shape
Location	Nose, trachea	Intervertebral discs	Ear
Composition/Abundance	Collagen fibers	Thick collagen fibers	Elastic fibers

Muscle Tissue

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, contains intercalated discs, found in the heart.

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, uninucleated, found in digestive tract and other organs.

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, multinucleated, found attached to bones.

Chapter 4: The Integumentary System

Cells of the Integumentary System

• Keratinocytes: Produce keratin, a protein that provides strength and waterproofing.

• Melanocytes: Produce melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color.

• Merkel Cells: Sensory receptors for touch.

• Langerhans Cells: Immune cells that help protect against pathogens.

Layers of the Skin

• Epidermis:

  • Stratum Corneum: Outermost, dead keratinized cells

  • Stratum Lucidum: Only in thick skin (palms, soles)

  • Stratum Granulosum: Keratin production begins

  • Stratum Spinosum: Several layers of keratinocytes

  • Stratum Basale (Germinativum): Deepest, mitotically active cells

• Dermis:

  • Papillary Layer: Loose connective tissue, forms dermal papillae

  • Reticular Layer: Dense irregular connective tissue

• Subcutaneous/Hypodermis: Not considered part of the integumentary system; consists mainly of adipose tissue.

Modes of Secretion

• Merocrine: Secrete via exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands)

• Apocrine: Part of the cell is pinched off (e.g., mammary glands)

• Holocrine: Entire cell disintegrates to release contents (e.g., sebaceous glands)

Types of Exocrine Glands

Type	Subtypes	Secretion
Sebaceous Glands	-	Secrete sebum (oil)
Sweat Glands	Apocrine, Merocrine	Secrete sweat
Apocrine Sweat Glands	-	Thicker, odorous sweat (armpits, groin)
Merocrine Sweat Glands	-	Watery sweat (most of body)

Additional info: The integumentary system is the body's first line of defense and plays a role in temperature regulation, sensation, and vitamin D synthesis.