Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1 Study Guide: Foundational Concepts, Cells, Tissues, and Integumentary System

Introduction to Anatomical Position and Surface Anatomy

Anatomical Position

The anatomical position is a standardized posture used as a reference in anatomy to describe locations and relationships of body parts. In this position, the body stands upright, facing forward, with arms at the sides and palms facing forward.

• Definition: The body is erect, feet slightly apart, head and toes facing forward, arms at the sides with palms facing forward.

• Importance: Provides a consistent frame of reference for anatomical terminology.

Surface Anatomy Regions

Surface anatomy regions are specific areas of the body used to describe locations of structures or injuries. Students should be able to locate and identify these regions on a model or diagram.

• Axial: Head, neck, and trunk

• Appendicular: Limbs (arms and legs)

• Examples of regions: Abdominal, Acromial, Antebrachial, Axillary, Brachial, Buccal, Carpal, Cephalic, Cervical, Coxal, Crural, Digital, Femoral, Fibular, Frontal, Hallux, Inguinal, Mammary, Manus, Mental, Nasal, Oral, Orbital, Palmar, Patellar, Pedal, Pelvic, Peroneal, Pollux, Popliteal, Pubic, Sacral, Sternal, Tarsal, Thoracic, Umbilical, Calcaneal, Gluteal, Dorsum, Cutaneous, Lumbar, Olecranal, Occipital, Plantar, Popliteal, Scapular, Sural, Vertebral.

Directional Terms and Body Planes

Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to describe the locations of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.

• Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure

• Inferior: Away from the head or toward the lower part

• Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front

• Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back

• Medial: Toward the midline

• Lateral: Away from the midline

• Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part

• Distal: Farther from the origin

• Superficial: Toward or at the body surface

• Deep: Away from the body surface

• Caudal: Toward the tail

• Cranial: Toward the head

Body Planes

Body planes are imaginary lines that divide the body into sections for anatomical study.

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

• Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left parts

• Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts

Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

Body Cavities

The body contains several cavities that house organs and provide protection.

• Dorsal Cavity: Includes cranial and vertebral cavities

• Ventral Cavity: Includes thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

• Thoracic Cavity: Contains pleural cavities (lungs) and pericardial cavity (heart)

• Abdominopelvic Cavity: Contains abdominal (digestive organs) and pelvic (bladder, reproductive organs) cavities

Serous Membranes

Serous membranes are thin tissues that line body cavities and cover organs.

• Parietal Layer: Lines the cavity walls

• Visceral Layer: Covers the organs

• Examples: Pleura (lungs), Pericardium (heart), Peritoneum (abdominal organs)

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

Abdominopelvic Regions

The abdominopelvic area is divided into nine regions for anatomical study.

• Right/Left Hypochondriac

• Epigastric

• Right/Left Lumbar

• Umbilical

• Right/Left Iliac (Inguinal)

• Hypogastric (Pubic)

Abdominopelvic Quadrants4

The area is also divided into four quadrants:

• Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

• Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

• Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

• Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Microscopy and Cell Structure

Parts of the Microscope

Understanding the microscope is essential for studying cells and tissues.

• Real Image: The actual image formed by the objective lens

• Virtual Image: The image seen through the eyepiece

• Total Magnification: Product of objective and ocular lens magnifications $\text{Total Magnification} = \text{Objective Magnification} \times \text{Ocular Magnification}$

• Resolution: Ability to distinguish two close objects

• Parfocal: Ability to stay in focus when changing objectives

• Field: Area visible under the microscope

• Working Distance: Distance between lens and specimen

• Depth of Field: Thickness of the specimen that is in focus

Cell Structure and Organelles

Cells contain various organelles, each with specific functions.

• Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane): Controls entry and exit of substances

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material

• Cytoplasm: Fluid between membrane and nucleus

• Chromatin: DNA and protein complex

• Chromosomes: Condensed chromatin during cell division

• Nuclear Envelope: Surrounds the nucleus

• Nuclear Pores: Allow transport in/out of nucleus

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein modification

• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Lipid synthesis

• Golgi Apparatus: Packaging and transport

• Lysosome: Digestion of cellular waste

• Peroxisome: Breakdown of fatty acids

• Mitochondria: ATP production

• Cytoskeletal Elements: Cell shape and movement

• Microtubules, Microfilaments, Centrioles: Cell division and structure

• Inclusions: Stored nutrients or pigments

Cell Transport Mechanisms

Types of Transport

Cells move substances across membranes using various mechanisms.

• Selective Permeability: Membrane allows certain substances to pass

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against gradient

• Passive Transport: No energy required; includes diffusion and osmosis

• Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane

• MWCO (Molecular Weight Cut-Off): Pore size in membranes for filtration

• Solute Pumps: Proteins that move substances against gradient

• Pinocytosis: Cell drinking (uptake of fluid)

• Phagocytosis: Cell eating (uptake of particles)

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion driving diffusion

Cell Division: Mitosis

Stages of Mitosis

Mitosis is the process by which cells divide to produce identical daughter cells.

• Prophase: Chromatin condenses, spindle forms

• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate

• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate

• Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms, chromosomes decondense

• Cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm

Tissues: Types and Organization

Major Tissue Types

The body is composed of four basic tissue types, each with specialized functions.

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues

• Muscle Tissue: Produces movement

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical signals

Epithelial Tissue Classification

Epithelial tissues are classified by cell shape and arrangement.

• Cell Shapes: Squamous (flat), Cuboidal (cube-shaped), Columnar (tall)

• Arrangements: Simple (one layer), Stratified (multiple layers), Pseudostratified, Transitional

Other Key Terms

• Histology: Study of tissues

• Basement Membrane: Supports epithelial tissue

• Endocrine/Exocrine Glands: Secrete hormones or other substances

• Extracellular Matrix: Non-cellular material in connective tissue

• Ground Substance: Fluid or gel in connective tissue

• Mesenchyme: Embryonic connective tissue

• Neuron/Neuroglia: Nerve cells and supporting cells

• Striation: Bands in muscle tissue

• Intercalated Discs: Specialized connections in cardiac muscle

Integumentary System

Functions of the Skin

The skin is the largest organ and serves multiple protective and regulatory functions.

• Protection: Against pathogens, chemicals, and physical injury

• Regulation: Body temperature, water loss

• Sensation: Touch, pain, temperature

• Vitamin D Synthesis: Initiated by sunlight

Layers of the Skin

The skin consists of two main layers: epidermis and dermis.

• Epidermis: Outer layer, contains several sublayers (stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum [in thick skin], corneum)

• Dermis: Deeper layer, contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves

Accessory Structures

• Hair: Structure includes root, shaft, follicle, and associated glands

• Nails: Protect tips of fingers and toes

• Glands: Sebaceous (oil), sweat (eccrine and apocrine)

Fingerprint Patterns

Fingerprints are unique patterns formed by ridges on the skin of the fingers. They are used for identification and can be classified into types such as loops, whorls, and arches.

HTML Table: Comparison of Tissue Types

Tissue Type	Main Function	Location
Epithelial	Protection, secretion, absorption	Skin, lining of organs
Connective	Support, binding, storage	Bones, tendons, fat
Muscle	Movement	Skeletal muscles, heart, walls of organs
Nervous	Signal transmission	Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Additional info:

• Students should review figures and tables referenced in their lab manual for visual identification.

• Practice identifying structures on models, diagrams, and microscope slides.

• Be familiar with the PhysioEx experiments and their outcomes, especially regarding cell transport.