Anatomy & Physiology: Extra Credit Assignment Study Guide

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Extra Credit Assignment: Anatomy & Physiology Review

Wet Mount Preparation

Creating a wet mount is a common laboratory technique used to observe specimens under a microscope. The process involves several key steps to ensure the specimen is visible and preserved during observation.

Step 1: Place the specimen on a clean microscope slide.
Step 2: Add a drop of water or appropriate solution to cover the specimen.
Step 3: Lower the coverslip gently at an angle to avoid air bubbles.
Step 4: Remove excess liquid with a paper towel if necessary.

Example: Observing onion epidermal cells using a wet mount technique.

Definitions: Tonicity

Tonicity refers to the relative concentration of solutes in two fluids separated by a semipermeable membrane, affecting the movement of water across the membrane.

Isotonic: A solution with the same solute concentration as another solution, resulting in no net movement of water across the membrane.
Hypotonic: A solution with a lower solute concentration compared to another solution, causing water to move into the cell, potentially leading to cell swelling.
Hypertonic: A solution with a higher solute concentration compared to another solution, causing water to move out of the cell, potentially leading to cell shrinkage.

Example: Red blood cells placed in a hypotonic solution will swell and may burst (hemolysis).

Anatomical Directions

Anatomical directional terms are used to describe the locations of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.

The elbow is distal to the shoulder.
The coccyx is inferior to the umbilicus.
The thymus gland is superior to the lungs.
The belly button is anterior to the stomach.

Key Terms:

Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
Inferior: Below or lower in position.
Superior: Above or higher in position.
Anterior: Toward the front of the body.

Determining Gender from Skeletal Remains

Forensic anthropologists use skeletal features to determine the gender of human remains. The three bones most commonly used are:

Pelvis: The shape and size of the pelvic inlet and subpubic angle differ between males and females.
Skull: Features such as the brow ridge, mastoid process, and mandible are more pronounced in males.
Femur: The angle and robustness can provide clues to gender.

What to look for: Wider pelvic inlet and subpubic angle in females; more robust skull features in males.

Muscle Terminology

Origin: The fixed attachment point of a muscle, usually proximal.
Insertion: The movable attachment point of a muscle, usually distal.
Action: The specific movement produced by muscle contraction (e.g., flexion, extension).
Antagonist: A muscle that opposes the action of another muscle (the agonist).

Example: In elbow flexion, the biceps brachii is the agonist, and the triceps brachii is the antagonist.

Reflex Arc Example

A reflex arc is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex action. For example, the pupillary light reflex causes the pupil to constrict in response to bright light.

Step 1: Stimulus – Bright light shines into the eye.
Step 2: Receptor – Photoreceptors in the retina detect the light.
Step 3: Sensory neuron – Transmits the signal to the brain.
Step 4: Integration center – Brain processes the information.
Step 5: Motor neuron – Sends signal to the iris muscles.
Step 6: Effector – Iris muscles contract, reducing pupil size.

Vision Terminology

Visual Acuity: The sharpness or clarity of vision, often measured with a Snellen chart.
Visual Accommodation: The process by which the eye changes optical power to maintain a clear image or focus on an object as its distance varies.

Heart Valves

The heart contains four main valves that ensure unidirectional blood flow:

AV (Atrioventricular) Valves: Tricuspid and mitral valves, located between the atria and ventricles.
Semi-lunar Valves: Pulmonary and aortic valves, located at the exits of the ventricles.

Function: AV valves prevent backflow into the atria; semi-lunar valves prevent backflow into the ventricles. The structure of the valves in arteries (semi-lunar) differs from AV valves in that they do not have chordae tendineae.

Heart Rate and Exercise

Resting Heart Rate: The number of heartbeats per minute while at rest, typically 60-100 bpm in adults.
Exercise Heart Rate: Increases to supply more oxygen and nutrients to muscles during physical activity.
Reason for Increase: Exercise increases metabolic demand, requiring the heart to pump more blood.

Hemolysis and Hemolytic Reactions

Hemolysis is the rupture of red blood cells, releasing hemoglobin into the surrounding fluid. In a hemolytic reaction, such as when incompatible blood types are mixed, the released hemoglobin can cause the plasma to turn a reddish-orange color.

Example: Mixing type A blood with type B antibodies can cause hemolysis.

Equation for Hemolysis: