Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts and Terminology – Study Guide

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

This study guide covers foundational concepts in anatomy and physiology, including basic chemistry, anatomical terminology, and the structure and function of living organisms. Understanding these principles is essential for further study in the biological and health sciences.

Chemistry in Anatomy & Physiology

Types of Chemical Bonds

• Covalent Bonds: Strong bonds formed when atoms share electron pairs.

• Ionic Bonds: Formed when atoms transfer electrons, resulting in oppositely charged ions that attract each other.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., oxygen or nitrogen). These are the weakest type of chemical bond.

• Polar Covalent Bonds: Covalent bonds with unequal sharing of electrons, leading to partial charges on atoms.

Example: Water molecules are held together by polar covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds form between water molecules.

Atomic Structure

• Atomic Mass: Calculated as the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

• Subatomic Particles:

  • Protons: Positively charged particles in the nucleus.

  • Neutrons: Neutral particles in the nucleus.

  • Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.

  • Ions: Atoms or molecules with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons.

Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acids: Substances that release H+ ions in solution.

• Bases: Substances that accept H+ ions or release OH- ions.

• pH Scale: Measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. A pH of 7.0 is neutral.

Formula:

$\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$

Organic Compounds in the Body

• Carbohydrates: Provide energy; include glucose, glycogen, fructose, and sucrose.

• Lipids: Fats and oils used for energy storage and cell membranes.

• Proteins: Made of amino acids; serve as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information.

Example: Glycogen is a carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells as a backup fuel supply.

Water as a Solvent

• Water: Excellent at breaking up ionic compounds due to its polarity, allowing ions to dissolve and participate in biological reactions.

Basic Biological Organization

Levels of Organization

• Atoms: Smallest units of matter.

• Cells: Smallest living units in the body.

• Tissues: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organs: Structures composed of two or more tissue types working together.

Anatomical Terminology

Directional Terms

• Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure.

• Inferior: Away from the head or toward the lower part.

• Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front of the body.

• Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back of the body.

• Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

• Lateral: Away from the midline.

• Proximal: Closer to the origin of a body part or the trunk.

• Distal: Farther from the origin or trunk.

• Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.

• Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal.

Anatomical Position

• Body is standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, and palms facing anteriorly (forward).

• In this position, the thumbs point away from the body.

Regional Terms

• Buccal: Refers to the cheek region.

• Antebrachial: Refers to the forearm.

Elements and Symbols

• Na: The chemical symbol for sodium.

• K: Potassium.

• N: Nitrogen.

• Ni: Nickel.

Homeostasis

• Definition: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body.

• Examples: Temperature regulation, blood clotting, and childbirth (labor and delivery of a baby).

Formation of Compounds

• Ionic Compounds: Formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.

• Molecular Compounds: Formed when atoms share pairs of electrons.

DNA and Genes

• Genes: Segments of DNA that code for the production of proteins.

Summary Table: Directional Terms

Term	Definition	Example
Superior	Toward the head	The brain is superior to the heart
Inferior	Away from the head	The stomach is inferior to the lungs
Anterior (Ventral)	Toward the front	The sternum is anterior to the spine
Posterior (Dorsal)	Toward the back	The heart is posterior to the sternum
Medial	Toward the midline	The nose is medial to the eyes
Lateral	Away from the midline	The ears are lateral to the nose
Proximal	Closer to trunk/origin	The elbow is proximal to the wrist
Distal	Farther from trunk/origin	The fingers are distal to the elbow

Additional info:

• Some context and definitions have been expanded for clarity and completeness.

• Examples and applications have been added to reinforce understanding.