Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts and Cellular Structure Study Guide

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Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.
Diffusion: The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Equilibrium: A state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
Feedback: Mechanisms that regulate physiological processes, including positive and negative feedback.
Directional Terms: Terms such as cranial, caudal, dorsal, ventral, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, used to describe locations on the body.
Body Planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse planes used to divide the body for anatomical study.
Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that contain internal organs (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic cavities).

Difference between Anatomy and Physiology: Anatomy focuses on structure, while physiology focuses on function. Both are interrelated, as structure often determines function.
Structure-Function Relationship: Understanding how the shape and composition of a body part enables its function (e.g., the structure of the heart allows it to pump blood).
Levels of Organization: The human body is organized from the simplest to the most complex: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.
Directional Terms and Body Planes: Used to describe locations and sections of the body for clarity in communication.
Body Cavities and Organs: Major cavities include the cranial, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities, each containing specific organs.
Body Systems: The body is organized into systems (e.g., circulatory, respiratory, digestive), each with specific functions.
Membranes: Parietal membranes line body cavities; visceral membranes cover organs. Serous membranes secrete fluid to reduce friction.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment. Involves feedback mechanisms.
Positive vs. Negative Feedback: Negative feedback reverses a change to maintain homeostasis (e.g., body temperature regulation), while positive feedback amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting).
Anatomical Landmarks: Reference points on the body used for orientation and description.

Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.
Water: The most abundant compound in living organisms, essential for life.
pH: A measure of hydrogen ion concentration; indicates acidity or alkalinity.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Enzyme: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.
Hydrophilic/Hydrophobic: Hydrophilic substances interact with water; hydrophobic substances do not.
Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions in solution and is capable of conducting electricity.

Covalent vs. Ionic vs. Hydrogen Bonds: Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons, ionic bonds involve transfer of electrons, and hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between polar molecules.
Importance of Ions and Electrolytes: Essential for nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and maintaining fluid balance.
Acids, Bases, and Salts: Acids release H+ ions, bases release OH- ions, and salts are formed from acid-base reactions.
pH Scale: Ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic), with 7 being neutral.
- Formula:
Buffers: Substances that minimize changes in pH.
Organic Molecules: Contain carbon; include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine their chemical properties (e.g., hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, methyl, carbonyl, sulfhydryl).

Functional Group	Structure	Properties/Examples
Hydroxyl	-OH	Alcohols, increases solubility in water
Carboxyl	-COOH	Acids (e.g., amino acids, fatty acids)
Amino	-NH2	Amino acids, acts as a base
Phosphate	-PO4	ATP, nucleic acids
Methyl	-CH3	Nonpolar, affects gene expression
Carbonyl	-C=O	Ketones, aldehydes
Sulfhydryl	-SH	Proteins (disulfide bonds)

Active Transport: Movement of substances across membranes using energy (ATP).
Phagocytosis/Pinocytosis: Types of endocytosis; phagocytosis is "cell eating," pinocytosis is "cell drinking."
Glycogenesis: Formation of glycogen from glucose.
Cell Membrane: The semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm of a cell.
Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic: Terms describing the relative concentration of solutes in solutions inside and outside the cell.
Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the structure of the cell membrane as a mosaic of components that gives the membrane a fluid character.
DNA Replication: The process of making a copy of DNA.
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: A process by which cells absorb metabolites, hormones, proteins by the inward budding of the plasma membrane.

Cell Membrane Structure: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates. The fluid mosaic model explains its dynamic nature.
Cellular Organelles: Structures within the cell (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus) that perform specific functions.
Transport Mechanisms: Includes passive (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) and active (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis) transport.
Osmosis and Tonicity: Water moves to balance solute concentrations.
- Isotonic: No net water movement.
- Hypertonic: Water moves out of the cell; cell shrinks.
- Hypotonic: Water moves into the cell; cell swells.
Osmotic Pressure: The pressure required to prevent the movement of water across a membrane.
- Formula: (where = osmotic pressure, = van 't Hoff factor, = molarity, = gas constant, = temperature in Kelvin)
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Processes for bulk transport of materials into (endocytosis) and out of (exocytosis) the cell.
DNA and RNA: DNA stores genetic information; RNA is involved in protein synthesis. DNA is double-stranded; RNA is usually single-stranded.
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells.

Feature	Passive Transport	Active Transport
Energy Required?	No	Yes (ATP)
Direction of Movement	Down concentration gradient	Against concentration gradient
Examples	Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion	Sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis, exocytosis

Some content was inferred and expanded for clarity and completeness, as the original material was in outline/question format.
Tables and formulas were added to enhance understanding and provide a self-contained study guide.