Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts, Body Systems, and Chemical Basis of Life

What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? 

Anatomy -The study of internal and external body structures and their relationships among other body parts

Physiology~ the study of how living organisms perform their vital functions

What the difference between the abdominopelvic quadrant vs abdominopelvic regions

The abdominopelvic quadrants ~ are divide the regions in 4 quadrants

The abdominopelvic regions ~ divide regions into 9 specific regions

Identify / name the abdominopelvic quadrants

A ~ right upper quadrant (RUQ)

B ~ left upper quadrants (LUQ)

C ~ right lower quadrants (RLQ)

D ~ left Lower quadrants (LLQ)

Identify/name the abdominopelvic Regions

1. Right hypochondriac region

2. epigastric region

3. Left hypochondriac region

4. Right lumbar region

5. Umbilical region

6. Left lumbar region

7. Right iliac region

8. Hypogastric region

9, left iliac region

What is anatomy?

Is the study of the structures of the body parts and the relationship to one another

What is physiology?

Physiology is the study of the function of the body parts and how they work to carry out life, sustaining activities

What are the subfields of human biology?

The subfields of human biology include: gross , anatomy, microscopic, anatomy, developmental biology, and more

What are the levels of organization of the human body in order from the simplest to most complex

Chemical 

Cellular 

Tissue

Organ

Organ system

Organism

What are the 11 organ systems in the human body?

1) integumentary system

2) skeletal system

3) muscular system

4) nervous system

5) cardiovascular system/ (circulatory system)

6 lymphatic system

7) respiratory system

8) digestive system

9) urinary system (excretory system)

10) Endocrine system 

11) reproductive system

What organs and function are / is part of the integumentary system

Organs: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands

Function: protects against environmental hazards, helps regulate body temperature, provides sensory info, vitamin D synthesis

What organs and function are / is part of the skeletal system

Organs: Bones, cartilages, Associated ligaments, bone marrow 

Function: Provide support and protection for other tissues, stores, calcium, and other minerals, forms blood cells

What organs and function are / is part of the muscular system

Organs: Skeletal muscles (skeletal, smooth, cardiac) and associated tendon

Functions: Provides movement, provides protection and support for other tissues, generates heat that maintains bodies temperature, maintaining posture, circulation of blood

What organs and function are / is part of the nervous system

Organs: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sense organs

Function: Directs immediate responses to stimuli, coordinates, or moderate activities of other organ systems, provide an interprets sensory information about external conditions

What organs and function are / is part of the cardiovascular system (circulatory system)

Organs: Heart, blood, blood vessels

Functions: Distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved material, including nutrients, waste, products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide, distributes, heat, and assists and control of body temperature

What organs and function are / is part of the lymphatic system

Organs: Spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils

Functions: Defense against infections and disease diseases, returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream, and maintains fluid balance

What organs and function are / is part of the respiratory system 

Organs: Nasal cavities, sinuses, Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli 

Functions: Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchanges occur), provides oxygen to bloodstream, removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream, produces sound for communication

What organs and function are / is part of the digestive system

Organs: Teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Functions: Processes and digest, food, absorbs, and conserve water, absorbs, nutrients, stores energy

What organs and function are / is part of the urinary system (excretory system)

Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Functions: excretes waste products from the blood, controls water balance by regulating volume of urine production, stores urine prior to voluntary elimination, regulates blood ions, concentration and pH

What organs and function are / is part of the endocrine system

Organs: Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, endocrine tissue, and other systems

Functions: Direct long-term changes in activity of other organ systems, adjust metabolism, activity and energy, using the body, controls many structures and function changes during development

What organs and function are / is part of the reproductive system (both male and female)

Male reproductive system

Organs: Testes, epididymis, ductus deferential, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, scrotum 

Functions: Produces sex cells (sperm) seminal fluid, and hormones, sexual intercourse

Female reproductive system 

Organs: Ovaries, urinary tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands

Functions: Produces sex cells  (oocytes) and hormones, supports, developing embryo from fertilization to delivery, provide provides milk to nurse, newborn infant, sexual intercourse

What are the five different body cavities?

Cranial cavity

Vertebral cavity

Thoracic cavity 

Abdominal cavity

Pelvic cavity

Abdominopelvic cavity

What are some examples of Serous membranes

Plural (lung), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominal organs)

What is the retroperitoneal in what organs are located in the retroperitoneal?

Organs located behind the peritoneum

The organs include the kidneys and the pancreas

What’s the difference between the ventral body cavities? What organs are located within each one? What Visceral membranes (specific terms) encapsulate each organ

The ventral cavities include the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

The thoracic cavity's organs include: heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea, and great vessels. Visceral membranes include: the pericardium and pleura.

The abdominopelvic organs include: digestive organs, spleen, kidney and ureters, and adrenal glands, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs, and rectum. Visceral membranes include: the peritoneum (retroperitoneal), parietal peritoneum, visceral peritoneum

How is homeostasis achieved in the body?

It’s achieved by the continuous process that establishes a relatively stable internal environment

What is a negative feedback loop?

A negative feedback loop reduces the effect of the stimulus (ex, regulation of blood glucose)

What is a positive feedback loop?

A positive feedback loop enhances the effect of the stimulus (ex, blood clotting, or labor contractions/childbirth)

What does a homeostatic regulatory mechanism consist of?

It consists of receptors, control center, and  effectors 

What is an atom?

The smallest unit of an element, composed of protons, neutrons and elections.

What is an element?

A pure substance consisting of one type of atom

What's a molecule?

Two or more atoms bonded together

What is a compound?

A substance formed from two or more different elements

What are the 3 subatomic particles

1) proton

2) neutron

3) electrons

The function of protons (charge, mass, etc )

Protons:determine the element's identity and

attract electrons, keeping them in orbit

Charge: +1

Mass: 1

The function of neutrons (charge, mass, etc )

Neutrons: they contribute to the atom's mass and they help hold the nucleus together by cushioning the repulsive forces between positively charged protons

Charge: 0

Mass: 1

The function of electrons (charge, mass, etc )

Electrons: allowing atoms to form molecules by sharing or transferring negative charges, which also dictates the chemical properties of element

Charge: -1

Mass: 1/1800

What is an isotope?

Are atoms of the same elements with A different numbers of neutrons.

How do atoms interact with each other?

​​By forming chemical bonds through the sharing of transfer of their outermost electrons ( valence elections), which are attracted to the positive nucleus of other atoms.

What are the 4 chemical bonds

1) covalent bonds

2) polar / non-polar

3) ionic bonds

4) hydrogen bonds

What are covalent bonds?

Sharing of electrons pairs between atoms. These bonds can be polar ( unequal sharing) of non-polar (equal sharing)

What are ionic bonds?

Is the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, resulting in charged ions.

What are hydrogen bonds?

Weak attractions between hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.

What the difference between covalent (Polar vs non polar) ionic and hydrogen bonds.

Ionic, covalent (polar and nonpolar), and hydrogen bonds differ in how electrons are involved: ionic bonds involve electron transfer to form charged ions, covalent bonds share electrons (equally in nonpolar, unequally in polar), and hydrogen bonds are weaker electrostatic attractions between a hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative atom in another molecule. 

What are waters special properties?

High heat capacity, solvent abilities, cohesion, adhesion

What is PH and how does it relate to acidity?

pH is a scale from 0 to 14 that measures the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution, with 7 being neutral. A low pH (below 7) indicates acidity due to a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+), while a high pH (above 7) signifies a base or alkali from a high concentration of hydroxyl ions (OH-). Each unit on the pH scale represents a tenfold change in acidity or alkalinity, meaning a solution with a pH of 4 is ten times more acidic than a solution with a pH of 5. 

What is metabolism?

All chemical reactions in the body.

What is anabolism?

The building of complex molecules form simpler ones.

What is Catabolism?

The braking down complex molecules into simpler ones.

What is Condensation ( dehydration synthesis )

The reaction forming a covalent bend with the removal of water 

What is hydrolysis?

Breaking a bond by adding water

Condensation and synthesis reactions involving water are called: ______________ and ______________.

• Dehydration synthesis

• Condensation

What the different between kinetic Vs potential energy

Kinetic energy: energy of motion

Potential energy: stored energy due to position or structure

What are enzymes and how do they operate

Enzymes are: biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy

Operation: enzymes bind substrates at the active site, forming en enzyme - substrate complex.

What are the biomacromolecules and what atoms are they composed of 

Lipids- contain carbon at a 1:2 ratio with a little Oxygen 

• Proteins-organic and contains C,H,O ,N 

• Nucleic Acids- Large organic is composed ofC,H,O,N,P{phosphorus)

• Carbohydrates- Polymers of simple sugars {monosaccharides) that serve as a primary energy source. Contains H,O,C

Amino acids undergo dehydration reactions to form ________________ bonds.

peptide bonds

what are the 4 biological macromolecules

The four main types of biological macromolecules are 

1) carbohydrates, 

2)lipids, 

3)proteins, 

4) nucleic acids

What respective monomers to the 4 biological macromolecules

Their respective monomers are amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, monosaccharides (sugars), and nucleotides

What are monomers?

Monomers are small, repeating molecular subunits or "building blocks" that link together to form larger molecules called polymers. For example, glucose is a monomer that joins to form the polymer starch, and amino acids are monomers that build proteins (biological monomers include amino acids (for proteins), monosaccharides (for carbohydrates), and nucleotides (for nucleic acids).  

Study the chart on the back

What are the 4 levels of protein structure? What influences each level

• Primary, defined by the amino acid sequence and determined by covalent peptide bonds 

• Secondary, involving local folding into alpha-helices or beta-sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds 

• Tertiary, the overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain, determined by R-group interactions 

• Quaternary, the arrangement of multiple subunits

 in a functional protein, stabilized by various non-covalent and sometimes covalent bonds 

How is  DNA organized in the Cell?

DNA is organized into chromosomes within the nucleus

What’s the different between saturated and unsaturated lipids

Saturated lipids: no double bond, solid at room temperature

Unsaturated lipids: one or more double bonds, liquid at room temperature

Describe the structure of the Plasma membrane.

The plasma membrane's structure is best described by the fluid-mosaic model, a flexible bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates, forming a selective barrier between the cell's interior and exterior. Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, creating a stable lipid environment. Embedded proteins perform various functions, including transport and cell signaling, while cholesterol helps maintain membrane fluidity. Carbohydrates, often attached to proteins or lipids, play a role in cell recognition

Integral vs peripheral proteins.

Integral proteins: are permanently embedded in or spanning the lipid bilayer, functioning in transport and acting as receptors 

Peripheral proteins: are temporarily attached to the membrane surface, binding to integral proteins or lipids 

What is Glycocalyx? What is its structure and function

Glycocalyx: is a "sugar coat" layer of macromolecules like proteoglycans and glycoproteins on the outer surface of the cell

Structure: carbohydrate -rich area on the cell surface.

Function: cell recognition, protection

Describe the organelles of a typical cell and indicate the specific functions of each

• Nucleus: contains genetic material

• Mitochondria: ATP production

• Endoplasmic reticulum: protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi apparatus: modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

• lysosomes: digestion of cellular wast

• ribosomes: protein synthesis

Describe the flow of genetic info

DNA➡️ RNA ➡️ Prototein

What is the purpose of the helicase, DNA polymerase, and the ligase?

The helicase unwinds the double helix / DNA. 

DNA polymerase: synthesizes new DNA strands

Ligase: joins DNA fragments.

Differentiate between passive and active transport across biological membranes

Passive transport moves substances down their concentration or electrochemical gradient from high to low concentration without cellular energy. 

- Passive Transport: No energy required (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

  Active transport moves substances against their gradient from low to high concentration, requiring cellular energy. typically in the form of ATP. 

- Active Transport: Requires energy (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

How does carrier mediated transport differ from vesicular mediated transport

Carrier-mediated transport involves specific proteins embedded in the cell membrane that bind to and transport individual solute molecules across the membrane, often against a concentration gradient     

- Carrier-Mediated Transport: Uses specific proteins to move substances.

Vesicular transport (also known as bulk transport) moves larger particles or large amounts of fluid by forming membrane-bound vesicles, requiring energy and cellular machinery to engulf (endocytosis) or expel (exocytosis) cargo 

- Vesicular Transport: Movement via vesicles (e.g., endocytosis, exocytosis).

What are the stages of the cell life cycle

G1 Phase , S Phase , G2 Phase , Mitosis , and Cytokinesis

G1 phase

G1 Phase (first Gapj: The cell grows in size, synthesizes proteins and enzymes, and carries out its normal metabolic functions. This phase prepares the cell for DNA synthesis

S Phase

S Phase (Synthesis I: The cell's DNA is replicated, resulting in two identical sister 

chromatids for each chromosome. The centrosome is also duplicated during this  phase

G2 Phase

G2 Phase (Second Gapj: The cell continues to grow and synthesizes proteins and organelles to prepare for mitosis.

Mitosis

Mitosis: This is the stage of nuclear division where the duplicated chromosomes are carefully separated and distributed into two new nuclei. 

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis: Following mitosis, the cytoplasm and cell membrane divide, forming two distinct daughter cells, each genetically identical to the parent cell

Unregulated cell division  manifests as

As cells divide uncontrollably, they can create an abnormal mass of tissue called a tumor. 

Benign tumors are non-cancerous and do not spread to other parts of the body, but they can still cause health problems by growing larger and pressing on organs

Malignant tumors are cancerous and can invade nearby tissues and damage them.

             Regulation: Controlled by cyclins and checkpoints. 

             Unregulated Cell Division: Can lead to cancer.