Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts Study Guide

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This chapter introduces the hierarchical organization of the human body, anatomical terminology, and foundational physiological concepts.

Levels of Organization: The human body is organized from atoms to molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the organism.
Anatomical Regions: Understanding terms such as orbital (eye), antecubital (front of elbow), axillary (armpit), etc., is essential for describing locations on the body.
Serous Membranes: These are thin membranes lining body cavities and covering organs (e.g., pleura, pericardium, peritoneum). They reduce friction and compartmentalize organs.
Anatomic Position: The standard reference position for the body in the study of anatomy. The body stands upright, facing forward, arms at the sides with palms facing forward.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment. Involves feedback mechanisms (primarily negative feedback) to regulate physiological variables.
Characteristics of Living Things: Includes organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction, and adaptation.

Example: The body maintains blood glucose levels through homeostatic feedback involving insulin and glucagon.

This chapter covers the chemical basis of life, focusing on biomolecules, enzymes, and chemical reactions relevant to physiology.

Carbohydrate Storage: Carbohydrates are stored in the human body primarily as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed. They lower activation energy and are specific to substrates.
Concentration Gradients: Differences in the concentration of a substance across a space or membrane, driving diffusion and other transport processes.
Functional Classification of Proteins: Proteins can be classified as structural (e.g., collagen), enzymatic (e.g., amylase), transport (e.g., hemoglobin), and regulatory (e.g., hormones).
Chemical Reactions: Includes synthesis (anabolic), decomposition (catabolic), exchange, and redox reactions. Directionality refers to whether reactions proceed in one direction or are reversible.
pH and Buffers: pH measures hydrogen ion concentration. Buffers are substances that minimize changes in pH by absorbing or releasing H+ ions. Example: Bicarbonate buffer system in blood.

Example: The enzyme lactase catalyzes the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose.

Additional info: DNA & RNA structure and function are not included in this exam section.

This chapter explores the structure and function of the cell, including membranes, organelles, and transport mechanisms.

Plasma Membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Functions as a selective barrier and site for communication and transport.
Proteins in the Membrane: Include channels, carriers, receptors, enzymes, and structural proteins.
Intercellular Junctions: Structures that connect adjacent cells, such as tight junctions (prevent leakage), desmosomes (provide strength), and gap junctions (allow communication).
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Endocytosis is the process of taking substances into the cell via vesicles; exocytosis is the release of substances from the cell. Both require ATP (energy).
Cellular Organelles: Key organelles include the nucleus (genetic control), mitochondria (ATP production), endoplasmic reticulum (protein/lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (modification and packaging), lysosomes (digestion), and cytoskeleton (structure and movement).
Cilia, Flagella, and Microvilli: Cilia and flagella are involved in movement; microvilli increase surface area for absorption.
Passive and Active Transport: Passive transport (e.g., diffusion, osmosis) does not require energy; active transport (e.g., sodium-potassium pump) requires ATP.

Example: The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of and K+ into the cell against their concentration gradients, using ATP.

Additional info: Tonicity, meiosis, and mitosis are not included in this exam section.