Anatomy & Physiology: Foundational Concepts Study Guide

Chapter 1 – Language of Anatomy

Organization of the Human Body

The human body is organized hierarchically, from atoms to the complete organism. Understanding this structure is essential for studying anatomy and physiology.

• Levels of Organization: Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

• Example: Oxygen atoms form water molecules, which are essential for cellular function.

Regions of Anatomy

Accurate anatomical terminology is crucial for describing locations and relationships within the body.

• Key Terms: Orbital (eye), antecubital (front of elbow), axillary (armpit), etc.

• Application: Use anatomical terms to answer questions about body regions.

Serous Membranes

Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs, providing lubrication and protection.

• Types: Pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominal organs)

• Function: Reduce friction between organs and cavity walls.

Anatomic Position

The anatomic position is a standardized posture used to describe locations and directions on the human body.

• Definition: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

• Importance: Provides a reference for anatomical terminology.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes.

• Negative Feedback: Counteracts changes (e.g., body temperature regulation)

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes (e.g., blood clotting)

• Example Equation: $\text{Homeostatic Response} = \text{Set Point} - \text{Current Value}$

Characteristics of Living Things

Living organisms share several defining characteristics.

• Key Characteristics: Metabolism, responsiveness, growth, reproduction, movement, cellular organization

Chapter 2 – Chemistry

Carbohydrate Storage in the Human Body

Carbohydrates are stored primarily as glycogen in the liver and muscles.

• Glycogen: A polysaccharide that serves as a major energy reserve.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in the body.

• Function: Lower activation energy, increase reaction rate

• Example: Amylase breaks down starch into sugars.

Concentration Gradients

A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a substance across a space.

• Importance: Drives diffusion and transport processes in cells.

• Equation: $\text{Rate of Diffusion} \propto \text{Concentration Gradient}$

Functional Classification of Proteins

Proteins are classified based on their functions in the body.

• Types: Enzymes, structural proteins, transport proteins, regulatory proteins

• Example: Hemoglobin (transport), collagen (structural)

Types of Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions in the body include synthesis, decomposition, exchange, and redox reactions.

• Synthesis: $A + B \rightarrow AB$

• Decomposition: $AB \rightarrow A + B$

• Exchange: $AB + CD \rightarrow AC + BD$

• Redox: Transfer of electrons between molecules

pH and Buffers

pH measures the hydrogen ion concentration; buffers help maintain stable pH in the body.

• pH Scale: Ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic); 7 is neutral

• Buffer Function: Resist changes in pH by neutralizing acids or bases

• Example Equation: $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[H^+]$

Chapter 3 – The Cell

Plasma Membrane Structure and Proteins

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier composed of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins.

• Components: Phospholipids, cholesterol, integral and peripheral proteins

• Protein Types: Transport, receptor, enzymatic, structural

Intercellular Junctions

Intercellular junctions connect cells and facilitate communication and adhesion.

• Types: Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions

• Function: Maintain tissue integrity, allow passage of ions and molecules

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Cells transport large molecules via endocytosis (intake) and exocytosis (release), processes that require ATP.

• Endocytosis: Phagocytosis (cell eating), pinocytosis (cell drinking)

• Exocytosis: Secretion of substances (e.g., neurotransmitters)

• ATP Use: Both processes are energy-dependent

Cell Organelles and Functions

Organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform distinct functions.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes

• Flagella and Microvilli: Movement and increased surface area

Passive and Active Transport

Cells move substances across membranes via passive (no energy) and active (requires energy) transport.

• Passive Transport: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

• Active Transport: Uses ATP to move substances against concentration gradients

• Example Equation: $\text{Active Transport Rate} = k \cdot [\text{ATP}]$

Cell Division

Cell division includes processes such as mitosis and meiosis, but these are not covered in this exam.

• Note: Tonicity, meiosis, and mitosis will not be on the exam.