Anatomy & Physiology: Foundations, Chemistry, and Cell Biology Study Notes

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Definitions and Scope

• Anatomy: The study of the structure and form of body parts, including their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of the function of body parts and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.

• Subfields of Human Biology: Includes gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy (histology, cytology), developmental biology, and physiology subfields (e.g., neurophysiology, cardiovascular physiology).

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular Level: Cells and their organelles

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ Level: Contains two or more types of tissues

• Organ System Level: Organs that work closely together

• Organismal Level: All organ systems combined to make the whole organism

The 11 Organ Systems

• Integumentary

• Skeletal

• Muscular

• Nervous

• Endocrine

• Cardiovascular

• Lymphatic/Immune

• Respiratory

• Digestive

• Urinary

• Reproductive

Anatomical Terminology

• Use of standard anatomical terms to describe body regions, sections, and relative positions (e.g., anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, proximal/distal).

Body Cavities and Membranes

• Ventral Body Cavities: Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs), abdominopelvic cavity (contains digestive organs, urinary bladder, reproductive organs).

• Serous Membranes: Thin, double-layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral body cavity (e.g., pleura for lungs, pericardium for heart, peritoneum for abdominal organs).

• Abdominopelvic Regions: Nine regions (e.g., right hypochondriac, epigastric, left lumbar, etc.) used to describe locations of organs.

• Retroperitoneal Organs: Organs located behind the peritoneum, such as the kidneys.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Negative Feedback Loop: A process that reverses a change to keep a variable within a normal range (e.g., regulation of body temperature, blood glucose).

• Positive Feedback Loop: A process that amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

• Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism: Consists of a receptor (detects change), control center (processes information), and effector (carries out response).

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Atoms, Elements, Molecules, and Compounds

• Atom: The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.

• Element: A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.

• Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.

• Compound: A molecule containing two or more different elements.

Subatomic Particles

• Protons: Positively charged, found in nucleus, determine atomic number.

• Neutrons: No charge, found in nucleus, contribute to atomic mass.

• Electrons: Negatively charged, orbit nucleus, involved in chemical bonding.

Isotopes

• Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

• Some isotopes are radioactive and used in medical imaging.

Chemical Bonds

• Covalent Bonds: Atoms share electrons; can be polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing).

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, forming ions.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., in water molecules).

Properties of Water

• High heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, universal solvent, reactivity, cushioning.

pH and Acids/Bases

• pH: A measure of hydrogen ion concentration; $pH = -\log[H^+]$

• Acids: Release H+ ions; Bases: Accept H+ ions.

Metabolism and Chemical Reactions

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body.

• Anabolism: Building larger molecules from smaller ones (e.g., protein synthesis).

• Catabolism: Breaking down molecules to release energy (e.g., cellular respiration).

• Condensation (Dehydration Synthesis): Joins monomers by removing water.

• Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers by adding water.

Kinetic vs. Potential Energy

• Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.

• Potential Energy: Stored energy due to position or structure.

Enzymes

• Enzyme: Biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Enzymes are specific to substrates and are not consumed in the reaction.

Biological Macromolecules

Overview Table: Biomacromolecules, Monomers, Polymers, and Functions

Biomacromolecule	Monomers (atom composition)	Polymers	Functions
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharides (C, H, O)	Cellulose, Starch, Glycogen	Energy storage, structural support
Nucleic Acids	Nucleotides (C, H, O, N, P)	RNA, DNA	Genetic information storage and transfer
Proteins	Amino acids (C, H, O, N, sometimes S)	Polypeptides	Movement, speeding up reactions (enzymes), structural support, transport
Lipids	Glycerol and fatty acids (C, H, O)	Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids	Energy storage, membrane structure, signaling

• Amino acids undergo dehydration reactions to form peptide bonds.

Cell Structure and Function

DNA Organization in the Cell

• DNA is packaged into chromosomes within the nucleus, wrapped around histone proteins to form chromatin.

Lipids: Saturated vs. Unsaturated

• Saturated Lipids: No double bonds between carbon atoms; solid at room temperature.

• Unsaturated Lipids: One or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature.

Plasma Membrane Structure

• Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

• Integral Proteins: Span the membrane; involved in transport.

• Peripheral Proteins: Attached to membrane surface; involved in signaling or structural support.

Glycocalyx

• A carbohydrate-rich area on the cell surface; involved in cell recognition, protection, and adhesion.

Cell Organelles and Their Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER synthesizes proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes for breakdown of waste.

• Peroxisomes: Breakdown of fatty acids and detoxification.

• Cytoskeleton: Structural support, cell movement.

Flow of Genetic Information

• DNA → RNA → Protein (Central Dogma of Molecular Biology)

• Transcription: DNA is copied into mRNA.

• Translation: mRNA is used to synthesize proteins at ribosomes.

Enzymes in DNA Replication

• Helicase: Unwinds DNA double helix.

• DNA Polymerase: Synthesizes new DNA strands.

• Ligase: Joins DNA fragments together.

Membrane Transport Mechanisms

• Passive Transport: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy (e.g., diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active Transport: Movement against concentration gradient, requires ATP (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

• Carrier-Mediated Transport: Specific proteins transport substances across membrane.

• Vesicular Transport: Movement of large particles via vesicles (e.g., endocytosis, exocytosis).

Cell Cycle and Regulation

• Stages of Cell Cycle: G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (preparation for division), M (mitosis/cell division).

• Regulated by checkpoints and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).

• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.

Example: Negative Feedback in Homeostasis

• When body temperature rises, sweat glands are activated to cool the body, returning temperature to normal.

Additional info:

• Some content, such as specific abdominopelvic regions and detailed cell cycle regulation, was expanded for completeness.