Anatomy & Physiology Foundations: Organization, Chemistry, and Cellular Structure

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Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Definitions and Subdivisions

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences for understanding the human body. Anatomy focuses on the structure of body parts and their relationships, while physiology studies the function of those parts.

Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to each other.
Physiology: The study of the function of body parts.
Principle of Complementarity: Structure and function are interrelated; what a structure can do depends on its form.

Major Subdivisions of Anatomy

Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy: Study of structures visible to the naked eye.
Regional Anatomy: Study of all body structures in a specific region.
Systemic Anatomy: Study of body structures by system.
Surface Anatomy: Study of external features as they relate to deeper structures.
Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen without magnification (includes cytology and histology).
Developmental Anatomy: Study of structural changes throughout the lifespan.
Pathological Anatomy: Study of structural changes associated with disease.
Radiological Anatomy: Study of internal structures using imaging techniques.
Molecular Biology: Study of biological molecules.

Major Subdivisions of Physiology

Focuses on specific organ systems and cellular/molecular events.

Levels of Structural Organization

Hierarchy of Organization

The human body is organized into several levels, each building on the previous one.

Chemical Level: Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular Level: Cells are the smallest units of life.
Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.
Organ Level: Organs are made of different tissue types working together.
Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together for a common purpose.
Organismal Level: The sum of all structural levels working together to promote life.

The Eleven Organ Systems

Each organ system has specific components and functions.

Organ System	Main Function
Integumentary	Protection, temperature regulation, sensation
Skeletal	Support, protection, movement, blood cell formation
Muscular	Movement, posture, heat production
Nervous	Control, communication, response to stimuli
Endocrine	Regulation via hormones
Cardiovascular	Transport of nutrients, gases, wastes
Lymphatic	Immunity, fluid balance
Respiratory	Gas exchange
Digestive	Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
Urinary	Waste elimination, water balance
Reproductive	Production of offspring

Requirements for Life

Necessary Life Functions

Maintaining Boundaries: Separation of internal and external environments.
Movement: Locomotion and movement of substances.
Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli.
Digestion: Breakdown of food for absorption.
Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body.
Excretion: Removal of wastes.
Reproduction: Production of offspring.
Growth: Increase in size and number of cells.

Survival Needs

Nutrients: Chemicals for energy and cell building.
Oxygen: Required for energy release from food.
Water: Most abundant chemical in the body.
Normal Body Temperature: Needed for proper chemical reactions.
Atmospheric Pressure: Required for breathing and gas exchange.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

Negative Feedback: Reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).
Positive Feedback: Enhances the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Homeostatic Control System

Receptor: Detects changes.
Control Center: Determines set point and response.
Effector: Carries out the response.

Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Matter and Energy

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Energy is the capacity to do work or put matter into motion.

States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas.
Forms of Energy: Chemical, electrical, mechanical, radiant.

Elements and Atoms

Elements are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Atoms are the smallest units of elements.

Major Elements in the Body: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen.
Atomic Structure: Protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-).
Atomic Number: Number of protons.
Mass Number: Protons + neutrons.
Isotopes: Variants of elements with different neutron numbers.
Radioisotopes: Unstable isotopes that decay, emitting radiation.

Atoms, Molecules, and Mixtures

Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.
Compound: Two or more different atoms bonded together.
Mixture: Two or more substances physically intermixed.
Solution: Homogeneous mixture.
Colloid: Heterogeneous mixture with larger particles.
Suspension: Heterogeneous mixture with visible particles that settle out.

Chemical Bonds and Reactions

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, forming ions.
Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve eight electrons in their valence shell.

Chemical Reactions

Synthesis: Building larger molecules from smaller ones.
Decomposition: Breaking down molecules into smaller units.
Exchange: Rearrangement of parts between molecules.
Redox Reactions: Transfer of electrons between molecules.

Chemical Equation Example:

Reversible Reactions: Many reactions in the body are reversible, indicated by a double arrow:

Summary Table: Key Concepts

Concept	Definition
Anatomy	Study of body structure
Physiology	Study of body function
Homeostasis	Stable internal environment
Atom	Smallest unit of an element
Molecule	Two or more atoms bonded
Ionic Bond	Electron transfer between atoms
Covalent Bond	Electron sharing between atoms
Hydrogen Bond	Weak attraction between polar molecules

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