Anatomy & Physiology I: Exam 1 Study Guide

Lecture 1: Introduction to Anatomy

Gross Anatomy Subdisciplines

Gross anatomy is the study of structures visible to the naked eye. It is divided into several subcategories, each focusing on different aspects of anatomical organization.

• Comparative Anatomy: Examines similarities and differences across species.

• Developmental Anatomy: Studies anatomical changes from conception to adulthood.

• Regional Anatomy: Focuses on specific regions of the body.

• Systemic Anatomy: Studies body systems (e.g., cardiovascular, nervous).

• Pathological Anatomy: Investigates structural changes caused by disease.

• Microscopic Anatomy: Examines structures not visible to the naked eye, such as cells and tissues.

Organism Organization

The human body is organized in a hierarchical manner:

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular Level: Cells

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together

• Organism Level: The complete living being

Anatomic Directions and Planes

Understanding anatomical directions and planes is essential for describing locations and movements in the body.

• Directional Terms: Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal

• Body Planes: Coronal (frontal), sagittal, transverse (horizontal), oblique

Body Cavities

Body cavities house and protect internal organs.

• Ventral Cavity: Includes thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

• Dorsal Cavity: Includes cranial and vertebral cavities

• Serous Membranes: Line and cover organs within cavities (e.g., pericardium, pleura, peritoneum)

Lecture 2: Tissue Level of Organization

Primary Tissue Types

The body is composed of four primary tissue types, each with distinct functions.

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues

• Muscle Tissue: Produces movement

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical impulses

Epithelial Tissue

• Structure: Composed of tightly packed cells with minimal extracellular matrix

• Features: Apical surface, basement membrane

• Specializations: Microvilli (increase surface area), cilia (movement)

Connective Tissue

• Types: Loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone, blood

• Functions: Support, protection, transport, storage

• Examples: Adipose tissue (fat storage), tendons (dense regular connective tissue)

Cartilage

• Types: Hyaline (most common), elastic, fibrocartilage

• Features: Chondrocytes in lacunae, avascular

Muscle Tissue

• Types: Skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary, heart), smooth (involuntary, walls of organs)

• Features: Contractility, excitability

Lecture 3: Integumentary System

Epidermis

The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin, composed of several sublayers.

• Layers (from superficial to deep): Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (only in thick skin), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

• Cell Types: Keratinocytes (produce keratin), melanocytes (produce melanin), tactile cells (sensory), dendritic cells (immune)

Dermis

• Papillary Layer: Areolar connective tissue

• Reticular Layer: Dense irregular connective tissue

Hypodermis

• Composition: Adipose and areolar connective tissue

• Function: Insulation, energy storage

Exocrine Glands

• Types: Sweat (sudoriferous) glands (merocrine and apocrine), sebaceous (oil) glands

• Functions: Thermoregulation, lubrication, protection

Lecture 4: Cartilage, Bone, and Joints

Characteristics of Cartilage

• Types: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

• Features: Chondrocytes, lacunae, avascular

Classification of Bones

• Long Bones: Femur, humerus

• Short Bones: Carpals, tarsals

• Flat Bones: Skull, ribs

• Irregular Bones: Vertebrae

Cells of Bone

• Osteoprogenitor Cell: Stem cell for bone

• Osteoblast: Bone-forming cell

• Osteocyte: Mature bone cell

• Osteoclast: Bone-resorbing cell

Bone Structure and Anatomy

• Compact Bone: Dense, strong, forms outer layer

• Spongy Bone: Porous, contains red marrow

Joints

• Structural Classification: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

• Functional Classification: Synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable)

• Synovial Joints: Most common, have joint cavity and synovial membrane

• Types of Synovial Joints: Plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, ball-and-socket

Joint Movements

• Flexion/Extension: Decrease/increase angle between bones

• Abduction/Adduction: Movement away/toward midline

• Rotation: Movement around axis

Lecture 5: Muscle Tissue

Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle

• Excitability: Ability to respond to stimuli

• Contractility: Ability to shorten forcibly

• Extensibility: Ability to stretch

• Elasticity: Ability to return to original length

Organization of Skeletal Muscle

• Muscle > Fascicle > Muscle Fiber > Myofibril > Myofilaments

• Connective Tissue Layers: Epimysium (surrounds muscle), perimysium (surrounds fascicle), endomysium (surrounds fiber)

Muscle Fiber Arrangement

• Types: Circular, convergent, parallel, unipennate, bipennate, multipennate

Function of Neuromuscular Junction

• Process: Motor neuron releases neurotransmitter, causing muscle contraction

Lecture 6: Nervous Tissue

Anatomy of a Neuron

• Parts: Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon

• Other Terms: Nerve tract, ganglion, nucleus

Functional Classification of Neurons

• Sensory (Afferent): Transmit impulses toward CNS

• Motor (Efferent): Transmit impulses away from CNS

• Interneurons: Communicate between sensory and motor neurons

• Somatic vs. Visceral: Somatic (body), visceral (organs)

• Somatic vs. Autonomic: Somatic (voluntary), autonomic (involuntary)

Glial Cells and Their Functions

• CNS Glial Cells: Astrocyte, ependymal cell, microglial cell, oligodendrocyte

• PNS Glial Cells: Neurolemmocyte (Schwann cell), satellite cell