Anatomy & Physiology I: Lab Exam 1 Study Guide

Body Organization and Terminology

Body Cavities

The human body contains several major cavities that house and protect internal organs. Understanding these cavities is essential for anatomical orientation.

• Cranial cavity: Contains the brain.

• Vertebral (spinal) cavity: Encloses the spinal cord.

• Thoracic cavity: Houses the heart and lungs; subdivided into pleural cavities (lungs) and the pericardial cavity (heart).

• Abdominopelvic cavity: Contains digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs; subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Regional Terms

Regional terms are used to specify locations on the body. These terms are crucial for describing injuries, procedures, or anatomical relationships.

• Sacral: Region between the hips (sacrum)

• Gluteal: Buttock

• Lumbar: Lower back

• Thoracic: Chest

• Cervical: Neck

• Oral: Mouth

• Mental: Chin

• Crural: Leg (anterior)

• Sural: Calf (posterior leg)

• Otic: Ear

• Axillary: Armpit

• Femoral: Thigh

• Buccal: Cheek

• Brachial: Arm

• Antecubital: Front of elbow

• Antebrachial: Forearm

• Abdominal: Abdomen

• Umbilical: Navel

• Inguinal: Groin

• Scapular: Shoulder blade

• Patellar: Kneecap

• Popliteal: Back of knee

• Frontal: Forehead

• Occipital: Back of head

• Sternal: Breastbone

• Digital: Fingers or toes

• Carpal: Wrist

• Tarsal: Ankle

• Orbital: Eye socket

• Palmar: Palm

• Plantar: Sole of foot

Nine Regions of the Abdomen

The abdomen is divided into nine regions to help localize organs and pain:

• Right hypochondriac

• Epigastric

• Left hypochondriac

• Right lumbar

• Umbilical

• Left lumbar

• Right iliac (inguinal)

• Hypogastric (pubic)

• Left iliac (inguinal)

Integumentary System

Skin Structure

The skin is the largest organ of the body and consists of two main layers:

• Epidermis: Outermost, avascular layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium.

• Dermis: Deeper, vascular layer containing connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and appendages.

• Sebaceous Gland: Produces sebum (oil) to lubricate skin and hair.

• Sudoriferous Gland: Sweat gland involved in thermoregulation.

• Arrector Pili Muscle: Smooth muscle that causes hair to stand up (goosebumps).

Nail Anatomy

• Eponychium: Cuticle; protects the area between the skin and the nail.

• Hyponychium: Skin under the free edge of the nail.

• Free Edge: Part of the nail that extends beyond the finger or toe.

• Lunula: Crescent-shaped whitish area at the base of the nail.

Hair Anatomy

• Shaft: Visible part of the hair above the skin.

• Bulb: Enlarged base of the hair follicle where growth occurs.

• Root: Portion of hair below the skin surface.

• Follicle: Structure in the dermis from which hair grows.

Cell Structure

Cell Organelles

Cells contain specialized structures called organelles, each with unique functions:

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.

• Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesizes proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste.

• Plasma Membrane: Regulates entry and exit of substances.

Histology

Epithelial Tissue Types

• Simple Squamous: Single layer of flat cells; found in alveoli, blood vessels.

• Simple Cuboidal: Single layer of cube-shaped cells; found in kidney tubules.

• Simple Columnar: Single layer of tall, column-like cells; found in digestive tract lining.

• Stratified Squamous: Multiple layers; protects against abrasion; found in skin, mouth.

• Transitional: Stretches; found in urinary bladder.

• Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar: Appears layered but is not; has cilia; found in respiratory tract.

Connective Tissue Types

• Areolar: Loose connective tissue; supports and binds other tissues.

• Adipose: Stores fat; insulates and protects organs.

• Dense Regular: Parallel collagen fibers; found in tendons and ligaments.

• Dense Irregular: Irregularly arranged fibers; found in dermis of skin.

• Hyaline Cartilage: Most common cartilage; found in nose, trachea, ends of long bones.

• Osseous (Bone): Supports and protects; stores calcium.

• Blood: Transports gases, nutrients, wastes.

Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated; attached to bones.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs; found in heart.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated; found in walls of hollow organs.

Nervous Tissue

• Neuron: Main cell type; transmits electrical impulses.

Axial Skeleton

Skull Bones and Landmarks

• Frontal Bone: Forehead region; includes supraorbital foramen (above eye socket), glabella (smooth area between eyes).

• Parietal Bone: Sides and roof of skull; sagittal suture (between parietals), coronal suture (frontal-parietal), lambdoid suture (parietal-occipital).

• Temporal Bone: Sides of skull; squamous suture, external auditory meatus (ear canal), styloid process (needle-like), zygomatic process (cheekbone), mastoid process, mandibular fossa, jugular foramen.

• Occipital Bone: Back of skull; lambdoid suture, foramen magnum (spinal cord passage), occipital condyle, external occipital protuberance (EOP).

• Sphenoid: Butterfly-shaped; greater/lesser wings, sella turcica (pituitary fossa), optic canal, foramen ovale.

• Ethmoid Bone: Cribriform plates (olfactory foramina for smell).

• Mandible: Lower jaw; body, mandibular condyle, coronoid process, mental foramina, alveoli (tooth sockets), angle.

• Maxilla(e): Upper jaw; alveoli, intermaxillary suture, zygomatic process.

• Other bones: Zygomatic, palatine, lacrimal, nasal, vomer.

Vertebral Column

• Cervical vertebrae: 7 (C1 = atlas, C2 = axis)

• Thoracic vertebrae: 12

• Lumbar vertebrae: 5

• Key features: Vertebral body, spinous process, transverse process, vertebral foramen, intervertebral foramen (IVF)

Other Axial Bones

• Hyoid: U-shaped bone in neck; does not articulate with other bones.

• Ribs: 12 pairs: 7 true, 5 false (2 floating). Features: head, neck, angle, costal cartilage.

• Sternum: Body, manubrium, xiphoid process.

• Sacrum and coccyx: Base of vertebral column.

Appendicular Skeleton

Upper Extremity

• Clavicle: Collarbone.

• Scapula: Shoulder blade; acromion process, coracoid process, glenoid fossa, spine, supraspinous/infraspinous/subscapular fossae.

• Humerus: Arm bone; head, greater/lesser tubercles, capitulum, trochlea, coronoid fossa, olecranon fossa.

• Radius: Lateral forearm; head, neck, styloid process.

• Ulna: Medial forearm; olecranon process, coronoid process, styloid process.

• Carpals: 8 wrist bones.

• Metacarpals: Palm bones.

• Phalanges: Fingers (distal, middle, proximal).

Lower Extremity

• Pelvis: Ilium (ASIS, PSIS, iliac crest, greater sciatic notch), ischium (ischial spine, tuberosity, lesser sciatic notch), pubis (pubic symphysis), obturator foramen, acetabulum.

• Femur: Thigh bone; head, neck, greater/lesser trochanters, medial/lateral condyles, medial/lateral epicondyles.

• Patella: Kneecap.

• Tibia: Shin bone; tibial tuberosity, lateral/medial condyles, medial malleolus.

• Fibula: Lateral lower leg; lateral malleolus, head.

• Tarsals: 7 ankle bones; talus (dome), calcaneus (heel).

• Metatarsals: Foot bones.

• Phalanges: Toes (distal, middle, proximal).

Example Table: Types of Epithelial Tissue

Type	Structure	Location	Function
Simple Squamous	Single layer, flat	Alveoli, capillaries	Diffusion, filtration
Simple Cuboidal	Single layer, cube-shaped	Kidney tubules	Secretion, absorption
Simple Columnar	Single layer, tall	Digestive tract	Absorption, secretion
Stratified Squamous	Multiple layers, flat	Skin, mouth	Protection
Transitional	Multiple layers, variable shape	Bladder	Stretching
Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar	Single layer, appears stratified, cilia	Respiratory tract	Secretion, movement of mucus

Additional info:

• For the vertebral column, the atlas (C1) supports the skull and allows nodding, while the axis (C2) allows rotation of the head.

• True ribs attach directly to the sternum; false ribs do not, and floating ribs have no anterior attachment.

• Bone landmarks are important for muscle attachment and articulation.