Anatomy & Physiology I: Lab Exam 1 Comprehensive Study Notes

Body Cavities

Major Body Cavities

The human body contains several major cavities that house and protect vital organs. Understanding these cavities is essential for anatomical orientation and clinical applications.

• Cranial Cavity: Encloses the brain within the skull.

• Vertebral (Spinal) Cavity: Contains the spinal cord, protected by vertebrae.

• Thoracic Cavity: Surrounded by the ribs and chest muscles; contains the heart and lungs.

• Abdominopelvic Cavity: Subdivided into the abdominal cavity (digestive organs) and pelvic cavity (urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum).

• Dorsal Cavity: Includes cranial and vertebral cavities.

• Ventral Cavity: Includes thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Example: The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, specifically within the mediastinum.

Regional Terms

Body Regions and Landmarks

Regional terms are used to specify locations on the body, aiding in anatomical description and clinical reference.

• Sacral: Posterior region between the hip bones

• Gluteal: Buttock region

• Lumbar: Lower back, between ribs and pelvis

• Thoracic: Chest region

• Cervical: Neck region

• Oral: Mouth

• Mental: Chin

• Crural: Anterior leg (shin)

• Sural: Posterior leg (calf)

• Otic: Ear

• Axillary: Armpit

• Femoral: Thigh

• Buccal: Cheek

• Brachial: Arm

• Antecubital: Front of elbow

• Antebrachial: Forearm

• Abdominal: Abdomen

• Umbilical: Navel

• Inguinal: Groin

• Scapular: Shoulder blade

• Patellar: Anterior knee

• Popliteal: Posterior knee

• Frontal: Forehead

• Occipital: Back of head

• Sternal: Breastbone

• Digital: Fingers or toes

• Carpal: Wrist

• Tarsal: Ankle

• Orbital: Eye socket

• Palmar: Palm

• Plantar: Sole of foot

Example: The popliteal region is located at the back of the knee.

Nine Regions of the Abdomen

Abdominal Surface Anatomy

The abdomen is divided into nine regions for anatomical and clinical reference, aiding in the localization of organs and pain.

• Right Hypochondriac

• Epigastric

• Left Hypochondriac

• Right Lumbar

• Umbilical

• Left Lumbar

• Right Iliac (Inguinal)

• Hypogastric (Pubic)

• Left Iliac (Inguinal)

Example: The appendix is typically located in the right iliac region.

Integumentary System

Skin Structure

The integumentary system includes the skin and its derivatives, providing protection and sensory functions.

• Epidermis: Superficial, avascular layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium.

• Dermis: Deeper, vascular layer containing connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels.

• Sebaceous Gland: Produces sebum (oil) for lubrication of skin and hair.

• Sudoriferous Gland: Sweat gland; aids in thermoregulation.

• Arrector Pili Muscle: Smooth muscle causing hair to stand (goosebumps).

Nail Structure

• Eponychium: Cuticle; protects the nail matrix.

• Hyponychium: Skin under the free edge of the nail.

• Free Edge: Part of the nail that extends beyond the finger or toe.

• Lunula: Crescent-shaped whitish area at the nail base.

Hair Structure

• Shaft: Visible part of the hair above the skin.

• Bulb: Enlarged base of the hair follicle.

• Root: Portion of hair within the follicle.

• Follicle: Structure in the dermis from which hair grows.

Example: Sebaceous glands are associated with hair follicles and secrete oil to lubricate hair and skin.

Cell Structure

Major Organelles

Cells contain specialized structures called organelles, each with distinct functions necessary for cell survival.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.

• Ribosomes: Synthesize proteins.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER (with ribosomes) synthesizes proteins; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for waste breakdown.

• Centrioles: Involved in cell division.

• Plasma Membrane: Regulates entry and exit of substances.

Example: The mitochondria are often called the "powerhouse" of the cell due to their role in energy production.

Histology

Types of Tissues

Histology is the study of tissues. The four basic tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

Epithelial Tissue

• Simple Squamous: Single layer of flat cells; found in alveoli, blood vessels.

• Simple Cuboidal: Single layer of cube-shaped cells; found in kidney tubules.

• Simple Columnar: Single layer of tall, column-like cells; found in digestive tract lining.

• Stratified Squamous: Multiple layers; protects against abrasion; found in skin, mouth.

• Transitional: Stretches; found in urinary bladder.

• Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar: Appears layered but is not; has cilia; found in respiratory tract.

Connective Tissue

• Areolar: Loose connective tissue; supports and binds other tissues.

• Adipose: Stores fat; insulates and protects organs.

• Dense Regular: Parallel collagen fibers; found in tendons, ligaments.

• Dense Irregular: Irregularly arranged fibers; found in dermis of skin.

• Hyaline Cartilage: Most common cartilage; found in nose, trachea, ends of long bones.

• Osseous (Bone): Supports and protects; stores calcium.

• Blood: Transports gases, nutrients, wastes.

Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated; attached to bones.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs; found in heart.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated; found in walls of hollow organs.

Nervous Tissue

• Neuron: Specialized for communication via electrical impulses.

Example: Transitional epithelium allows the urinary bladder to stretch as it fills.

Skull Anatomy

Major Bones and Landmarks

The skull is composed of several bones joined by sutures, with distinct landmarks for identification.

• Frontal Bone: Forehead region; includes supraorbital foramen (notch above eye), glabella (smooth area between eyes).

• Parietal Bone: Sides and roof of cranium; joined by sagittal and coronal sutures.

• Temporal Bone: Sides of skull; features squamous suture, external auditory meatus (ear canal), styloid process (needle-like), zygomatic process (cheekbone), mastoid process, mandibular fossa, jugular foramen.

• Occipital Bone: Back of skull; includes lambdoid suture, foramen magnum (spinal cord passage), occipital condyle, external occipital protuberance (EOP).

• Sphenoid Bone: Butterfly-shaped; greater/lesser wings, sella turcica (pituitary gland seat), optic canal, foramen ovale.

• Ethmoid Bone: Cribriform plates (olfactory foramina for smell nerves).

• Mandible: Lower jaw; body, mandibular condyle, coronoid process, mental foramina, alveoli (tooth sockets), angle.

• Maxilla(e): Upper jaw; alveoli, intermaxillary suture, zygomatic process.

• Other Bones: Zygomatic, palatine, lacrimal, nasal, vomer.

Example: The foramen magnum is the large opening in the occipital bone for the spinal cord.

Axial Skeleton

Vertebral Column

• Cervical Vertebrae: 7; includes atlas (C1) and axis (C2).

• Thoracic Vertebrae: 12; articulate with ribs.

• Lumbar Vertebrae: 5; lower back.

• Vertebral Body: Main weight-bearing portion.

• Spinous Process: Posterior projection.

• Transverse Process: Lateral projections.

• Vertebral Foramen: Canal for spinal cord.

• Intervertebral Foramen (IVF): Openings for spinal nerves.

Other Axial Bones

• Hyoid: U-shaped bone in neck; does not articulate with other bones.

• Ribs: 12 pairs; true ribs (1-7), false ribs (8-12; 11-12 are floating).

• Rib Landmarks: Head, neck, angle, costal cartilage.

• Sternum: Body, manubrium, xiphoid process.

• Sacrum: 5 fused vertebrae.

• Coccyx: Tailbone; 3-5 fused vertebrae.

Example: The atlas (C1) supports the skull and allows nodding motion.

Appendicular Skeleton

Upper Extremity

• Clavicle: Collarbone; connects sternum to scapula.

• Scapula: Shoulder blade; acromion process, coracoid process, glenoid fossa, spine, supraspinous fossa, infraspinous fossa, subscapular fossa.

• Humerus: Upper arm bone; head, greater/lesser tubercles, capitulum, trochlea, coronoid fossa, olecranon fossa.

• Radius: Lateral forearm bone; head, neck, styloid process.

• Ulna: Medial forearm bone; olecranon process, coronoid process, styloid process.

• Carpals: 8 wrist bones.

• Metacarpals: Palm bones.

• Phalanges: Fingers; distal, middle, proximal.

Lower Extremity

• Pelvis: Formed by ilium, ischium, pubis.

• Ilium: ASIS (anterior superior iliac spine), PSIS (posterior superior iliac spine), iliac crest, greater sciatic notch.

• Ischium: ischial spine, ischial tuberosity, lesser sciatic notch.

• Pubis: pubic symphysis.

• Obturator Foramen: Large opening for nerves and vessels.

• Acetabulum: Hip socket for femur.

• Femur: Thigh bone; head, neck, greater/lesser trochanters, medial/lateral condyles, medial/lateral epicondyles.

• Patella: Kneecap.

• Tibia: Shin bone; tibial tuberosity, lateral/medial condyles, medial malleolus.

• Fibula: Lateral leg bone; lateral malleolus, head.

• Tarsals: 7 ankle bones; talus (dome), calcaneus (heel).

• Metatarsals: Foot bones.

• Phalanges: Toes; distal, middle, proximal.

Example: The acetabulum is the socket in the pelvis that receives the head of the femur.

Bone	Key Landmarks	Function/Location
Humerus	Head, greater/lesser tubercles, capitulum, trochlea	Upper arm; articulates with scapula and forearm
Femur	Head, neck, trochanters, condyles, epicondyles	Thigh; articulates with pelvis and tibia
Scapula	Acromion, coracoid, glenoid fossa, spine	Shoulder blade; muscle attachment
Pelvis	ASIS, PSIS, iliac crest, acetabulum	Hip structure; supports trunk, attaches legs
Vertebrae	Body, spinous/transverse process, foramen	Spinal column; protects spinal cord

Additional info: The above table summarizes key bones and their anatomical landmarks for quick reference.