Anatomy and Physiology I: Laboratory Study Guide (BIOL 195C)

Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Overview

This study guide summarizes the essential laboratory topics for a college-level Anatomy and Physiology I course (BIOL 195C). It covers foundational concepts, laboratory skills, and the identification of key anatomical structures and tissues.

Laboratory Skills and Best Practices

• Preparation: Read lab materials before class, highlight key terms, and review models/slides with lab partners.

• Study Habits: Allocate approximately 3 hours of study per hour of class. Use short, focused study sessions and form study groups for better retention.

• Lab Exam Protocol: Exams are first-come, first-serve. Follow all instructions, use only permitted equipment, and answer only the questions at each station.

Microscopy

Parts and Functions of the Compound Light Microscope

• Oculars (eyepieces): Lenses you look through to view the specimen.

• Objectives: Lenses of varying magnification (e.g., 4x, 10x, 40x).

• Stage: Platform where the slide is placed.

• Mechanical Stage: Allows precise movement of the slide.

• Coarse/Fine Adjustment: Focuses the image (coarse for general, fine for detailed focus).

• Light Source: Illuminates the specimen.

• Diaphragm Lever: Adjusts light intensity.

Magnification: Total magnification is calculated as:

$\text{Total Magnification} = \text{Ocular Magnification} \times \text{Objective Magnification}$

• Parfocal: Once in focus with one objective, the image remains nearly in focus when switching objectives.

• Proper Use: Always start with the lowest power objective and use only the fine adjustment at higher magnifications.

Cytology

Phases of Mitosis

• Early Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes; nuclear envelope begins to disintegrate.

• Late Prophase: Spindle fibers form; chromosomes attach to spindle.

• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.

• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles.

• Telophase: Chromosomes decondense; nuclear envelope reforms.

Example Slide: Fish blastodisc for observing mitosis.

Major Cellular Structures and Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

• Nucleolus: Site of ribosome synthesis.

• Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus.

• Chromatin: DNA and protein complex within the nucleus.

• Rough/Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

• Mitochondrion: Site of ATP production.

• Centrioles: Involved in cell division.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Cytoplasm/Cytosol: Fluid and structures within the cell membrane.

Histology

Primary Tissue Types and Subcategories

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces and lines cavities.

  • Simple squamous, stratified squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified, ciliated columnar, transitional

• Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and protects.

  • Areolar, adipose, dense regular, dense irregular, hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone, blood

• Muscle Tissue: Produces movement.

  • Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

• Nervous Tissue: Conducts electrical impulses.

  • Neurons, neuroglial cells

Sample Locations: For each tissue, know a representative location in the body (e.g., simple squamous in alveoli, skeletal muscle in biceps).

Integumentary System

Layers and Structures of the Skin

• Epidermis Layers:

  • Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum (thick skin only), stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

• Dermis Layers/Structures:

  • Papillary layer, reticular layer, hair shaft, hair follicle, sebaceous gland, sudoriferous gland, arrector pili muscle

  • Pacinian (lamellar) corpuscle, Meissner's (tactile) corpuscle, free nerve ending, hair follicle receptor

• Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer containing adipose tissue.

Example Slides: Thick skin (fingertip), thin skin, hair follicle.

Skeletal System

Long Bone Structure and Microscopic Anatomy

• Long Bone Parts: Epiphyses (proximal/distal), diaphysis, epiphyseal line, periosteum, articular cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone, trabeculae, red/yellow bone marrow, medullary cavity.

• Microscopic Structures: Osteon, central canal, lacuna, canaliculus, osteocyte.

Example Slide: Ground bone for microscopic examination.

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton: Bones and Landmarks

Students should be able to identify the following bones and their key landmarks:

Bone	Structures and Landmarks
Skull (e.g., Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital, Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxilla, Mandible, Zygomatic, Nasal, Lacrimal, Palatine, Vomer, Inferior nasal concha, Hyoid)	Supraorbital foramen, sagittal/coronal/squamous/lambdoid sutures, zygomatic process, mastoid process, styloid process, foramen magnum, crista galli, cribriform plate, palatine process, mental foramen, condylar process, coronoid process, lacrimal fossa, lacrimal foramen
Vertebral column	Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral curvatures; vertebrae (body, spinous process, transverse process, articular facets, vertebral foramen, intervertebral foramen, transverse foramen)
Sacrum, Coccyx	Promontory, sacral foramina, coccygeal vertebrae
Thoracic cage (Sternum, Ribs)	Manubrium, body, xiphoid process, true/false/floating ribs
Clavicle, Scapula	Acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity, spine
Humerus, Radius, Ulna	Head, greater/lesser tubercle, olecranon fossa, epicondyles, trochlea, capitulum, styloid process, radial notch, ulnar notch
Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges	Know as group
Pelvis (Coxal bone, Ilium, Ischium, Pubis)	Iliac crest, ischial tuberosity, obturator foramen, acetabulum, pubic symphysis
Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula	Head, neck, greater/lesser trochanter, medial/lateral condyles, tibial tuberosity, medial/lateral malleolus
Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalanges	Know as group

Additional info: Students may be required to distinguish right vs. left bones for certain structures.

Articulations (Joints)

Types of Joints

• Fibrous Joints: Suture, syndesmosis, gomphosis

• Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondrosis, symphysis

• Synovial Joints: Freely movable joints; example: knee joint

Knee Joint Structures

• Anterior/posterior cruciate ligaments

• Tibial/fibular collateral ligaments

• Patellar ligament

• Quadriceps femoris tendon

• Lateral/medial meniscus

Muscular System

Additional info: The original document references muscle tissues and associated structures, but details are not provided. Students should be familiar with skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle histology, as well as major muscle groups and their functions.

Nervous System and Special Senses

Additional info: The document lists these topics but does not provide details. Students should review the structure and function of neurons, neuroglia, major brain regions, spinal cord anatomy, and sensory organs (e.g., eye, ear).