Anatomy and Physiology I: Study Guide for Lecture Exam #1

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Physiology is the study of the function of the body and how its parts work together.

• Example: Studying the heart's chambers and valves is anatomy; studying how the heart pumps blood is physiology.

Types of Anatomy

• Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: Study of large body structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., heart, bones).

• Microscopic anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen without a microscope (e.g., cells, tissues).

• Systemic anatomy: Study of body systems (e.g., urinary system, nervous system).

• Regional anatomy: Study of specific regions of the body (e.g., thoracic region).

• Surface anatomy: Study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical level: Atoms and molecules.

• Cellular level: Cells and their organelles.

• Tissue level: Groups of similar cells.

• Organ level: Contains two or more types of tissues.

• Organ system level: Organs that work closely together.

• Organismal level: All organ systems combined to make the whole organism.

Characteristics of Life

• Includes metabolism (catabolism and anabolism), responsiveness, growth, reproduction, movement, and differentiation.

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body. Catabolism breaks down molecules; anabolism builds molecules.

Homeostasis

• Definition: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Importance: Essential for normal body functioning and sustaining life.

• Components: Receptor (detects change), control center (processes information), effector (carries out response).

• Example: Regulation of body temperature, blood glucose levels.

Feedback Mechanisms

• Negative feedback: Reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive feedback: Enhances the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Anatomical Position

• Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away from the body.

• Used as a standard reference for anatomical terminology.

Body Cavities and Organs

• Thoracic cavity: Contains heart (pericardial cavity), lungs (pleural cavities).

• Abdominopelvic cavity: Contains digestive organs, reproductive organs, bladder.

Serous Membranes

• Definition: Thin, double-layered membranes covering organs and lining cavities.

• Types: Pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominal organs).

• Function: Reduce friction between organs and cavity walls.

Basic Chemistry for Anatomy and Physiology

Basic Definitions

• Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass.

• Mass: Amount of matter in an object.

• Weight: Force of gravity on mass.

• Compound: Substance composed of two or more different elements chemically bonded.

• Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.

Elements and Atoms

• Four main elements in the human body: Oxygen (O), Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N).

• Protons: Positively charged particles in the nucleus.

• Neutrons: Neutral particles in the nucleus.

• Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.

• Atomic number: Number of protons in an atom.

• Atomic mass: Sum of protons and neutrons.

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; used in diagnostic imaging.

Mixtures and Solutions

• Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

• Colloid: Heterogeneous mixture with larger particles that do not settle.

• Suspension: Heterogeneous mixture with large particles that settle out.

• Solute: Substance dissolved in a solvent.

• Solvent: Substance that dissolves the solute (water is the universal solvent).

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic bond: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent bond: Sharing of electrons between atoms (e.g., H2O).

• Polar molecule: Unequal sharing of electrons (e.g., water).

• Nonpolar molecule: Equal sharing of electrons (e.g., O2).

• Electronegativity: Atom's ability to attract electrons.

Chemical Reactions

• Reactants: Starting substances in a reaction.

• Products: Substances formed by the reaction.

• Reversibility: Many reactions are reversible.

• Types of reactions: Decomposition (catabolism), synthesis (anabolism), exchange, oxidation-reduction (redox).

• Redox reactions: Involve transfer of electrons; important for energy production.

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

• Acid: Releases H+ ions in solution.

• Base: Accepts H+ ions or releases OH-.

• Salt: Ionic compound formed from acid-base reaction.

• Buffer: Substance that minimizes changes in pH; important for maintaining homeostasis.

• pH scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).

Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; main energy source.

• Lipids: Fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids; energy storage, cell membranes.

• Proteins: Chains of amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport.

• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; genetic information.

• Dehydration synthesis: Joins molecules by removing water.

• Hydrolysis: Breaks molecules by adding water.

Proteins and Enzymes

• Protein structure: Primary (amino acid sequence), secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet), tertiary (3D folding), quaternary (multiple polypeptides).

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up reactions; affected by temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.

• Nucleotide: Building block of nucleic acids; made of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base.

• DNA vs. RNA: DNA is double-stranded, contains deoxyribose; RNA is single-stranded, contains ribose.

• ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; main energy currency of the cell.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Cell Structure and Function

• All cells share three basic components: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus. Exception: Some cells lack a nucleus (e.g., mature red blood cells).

• Plasma membrane: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; controls entry and exit of substances.

• Fluid mosaic model: Describes the flexible, dynamic nature of the plasma membrane.

Membrane Proteins and Functions

• Integral proteins: Span the membrane; involved in transport and signaling.

• Peripheral proteins: Attached to membrane surface; involved in support and cell recognition.

Cell Junctions

• Tight junctions: Prevent leakage between cells.

• Desmosomes: Anchor cells together.

• Gap junctions: Allow communication between cells.

Transport Across Membranes

• Passive transport: No energy required; includes diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.

• Active transport: Requires energy (ATP); moves substances against concentration gradient.

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

• Hydrostatic pressure: Force exerted by fluid pressing against a wall.

• Osmotic pressure: Tendency of water to move into a solution.

• Primary active transport: Direct use of ATP (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

• Secondary active transport: Uses energy from ion gradients created by primary active transport.

• Symport: Two substances move in the same direction.

• Antiport: Two substances move in opposite directions.

Vesicular Transport

• Endocytosis: Cell takes in material by forming vesicles.

• Exocytosis: Cell expels material by fusing vesicles with the membrane.

• Phagocytosis: "Cell eating"; engulfing large particles.

• Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking"; engulfing fluids.

• Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Specific uptake of molecules after binding to receptors.

• Lysosome: Organelle containing digestive enzymes.

Cell Organelles

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production.

• Rough ER: Protein synthesis (has ribosomes).

• Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis and detoxification.

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins.

• Peroxisomes: Detoxify harmful substances.

Cytoskeleton and Cell Extensions

• Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments for support and movement; includes microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.

• Cell extensions: Cilia (movement of substances), flagella (cell movement), microvilli (increase surface area).

Cell Cycle and Division

• Cell cycle: Series of events in cell growth and division; includes interphase and mitotic phase.

• Mitosis: Division of the nucleus; stages include prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

• Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.

• Meiosis: Cell division producing gametes with half the chromosome number.

• Cell death: Includes apoptosis (programmed cell death) and necrosis (uncontrolled cell death).

Cellular Respiration and ATP Production

• ATP synthase: Enzyme that makes ATP during cellular respiration.

• Stages of cellular respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain.

• ATP yield: Know the number of ATP produced at each stage.

Comparison Table: DNA vs. RNA

Feature	DNA	RNA
Sugar	Deoxyribose	Ribose
Strands	Double-stranded	Single-stranded
Bases	A, T, C, G	A, U, C, G
Location	Nucleus	Cytoplasm (mainly)
Function	Genetic blueprint	Protein synthesis

Additional info:

• Some content was inferred and expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard Anatomy & Physiology I curriculum.