Anatomy & Physiology Lab Midterm Vocabulary: Skeletal and Tissue Structures

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Upper Extremities

The upper extremities consist of the bones of the shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand. These structures provide support, movement, and protection for the upper limbs.

• Scapula: Includes the acromion (forms the highest point of the shoulder), glenoid cavity (articulates with the humerus), and coracoid process (attachment for muscles).

• Humerus: Features the medial and lateral epicondyles (muscle attachment), trochlea (articulates with ulna), olecranon fossa (receives olecranon of ulna), radial fossa, coronoid fossa, capitulum (articulates with radius), intertubercular sulcus, and tuberosity.

• Ulna: Contains the trochlear notch (articulates with trochlea of humerus), olecranon (forms elbow), coronoid process, head, and styloid process.

• Hand: Composed of 5 metacarpals and phalanges (distal, middle, proximal).

Skull

The skull protects the brain and forms the structure of the face. It consists of cranial and facial bones, sinuses, and features unique to fetal development.

• Temporal bones: External acoustic meatus (ear canal), styloid process, mastoid process, mandibular fossa, zygomatic arch, carotid canal, jugular foramen, internal acoustic meatus, petrous part.

• Sphenoid bone: Lesser/greater wing, body, optic canal, foramen ovale, foramen spinosum, foramen lacerum, pterygoid process.

• Mandible: Body, ramus, mandibular notch, mandibular angle, mandibular symphysis, coronoid process, condylar process, mental foramen, mandibular foramen, alveolus.

• Sinuses: Frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal, maxillary sinuses (air-filled spaces that lighten the skull and aid in resonance).

• Fetal Skull: Anterior fontanel, posterior fontanel, sphenoidal fontanel, mastoid fontanel (soft spots for growth and birth).

Spinal Column

The spinal column supports the body and protects the spinal cord. It is composed of vertebrae, intervertebral disks, and specialized regions.

• Stacked Vertebrae: Intervertebral foramen (nerve passage), intervertebral disk (shock absorption), herniated disk (disk displacement), annulus fibrosus (outer ring), nucleus pulposus (inner gel).

• Cervical Vertebrae: Atlas (no body, supports skull), axis (dens, allows rotation), transverse foramen (artery passage).

• Thoracic Vertebrae: Costal facets (rib articulation), spinous process pointing down, transverse process flaring back.

• Lumbar Vertebrae: Heavy spinous process, transverse process.

• Sacrum: Medial crest (posterior), posterior/anterial sacral foramina, ridges (anterior).

Ribcage

The ribcage protects vital organs and assists in respiration.

• Costal cartilage: Connects ribs to sternum.

• True ribs (1-7): Directly attached to sternum.

• False ribs (8-10): Indirectly attached via cartilage.

• Floating ribs (11-12): Not attached to sternum.

Lower Extremities

The lower extremities include the pelvic girdle and bones of the leg, which support body weight and enable movement.

• Ilium: Iliac crest, anterior superior iliac spine, greater sciatic notch.

• Ischium: Lesser sciatic notch, ischial spine, ischial tuberosity.

• Pubis: Pubic symphysis, obturator foramen.

• Tibia: Intercondylar eminence, medial/lateral condyle, tibial tuberosity, anterior border, medial malleolus.

• Fibula: Head, lateral malleolus.

Joints and Articulations

Classification of Joints

Joints are classified by their structure and function, determining their range of movement.

• Fibrous Joints: Immovable, held together by fibrous tissue.

• Cartilaginous Joints: Slightly movable, connected by cartilage. Includes synchondroses (hyaline cartilage) and symphysis (fibrocartilage).

• Synovial Joints: Freely movable, characterized by a fluid-filled cavity.

Types of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are classified by the shapes of their articulating surfaces and the movements they allow.

• Plane Joint: Nonaxial, gliding movements (e.g., carpometacarpal).

• Hinge Joint: Uniaxial, flexion/extension (e.g., elbow, knee).

• Pivot Joint: Uniaxial, rotation (e.g., atlantoaxial, radioulnar).

• Condylar Joint: Biaxial, flexion/extension and abduction/adduction (e.g., wrist).

• Saddle Joint: Biaxial, greater range (e.g., thumb).

• Ball and Socket Joint: Multiaxial, greatest range (e.g., hip, shoulder).

Synovial Joint Structure

Synovial joints have distinct anatomical features that facilitate movement.

• Articular cartilage: Covers bone ends, reduces friction.

• Joint capsule: Seals the joint.

• Synovial membrane: Inner layer, produces synovial fluid.

• Fibrous membrane: Outer layer, provides strength.

Examples of Synovial Joints

• Shoulder Joint (glenohumeral): Ball and socket, contains bursa (fluid-filled sacs), glenoid labrum (cartilage ring), and articular capsule.

• Hip Joint (acetabulofemoral): Ball and socket, features acetabular labrum, ligament of the femur, articular capsule, articular cartilage, and meniscus.

Connective and Epithelial Tissues

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue supports, binds, and protects organs. It consists of cells (e.g., fibroblasts), fibers (collagen, elastic), and ground substance.

• Loose connective tissue: Packaging, contains pink collagen fibers and thin dark elastic fibers.

• Adipose tissue: Stores fat, organelles pushed to cell sides.

• Dense connective tissue: Strong, found in tendons and ligaments.

• Cartilage: Hyaline (ribs, trachea), elastic (ear), fibrocartilage (intervertebral disks, knee).

• Bone: Hard, supports body, contains osteocytes in lacunae.

• Blood: Fluid connective tissue, transports substances.

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue enables movement through contraction. It is classified by structure and function.

Type	Nuclei	Striations	Voluntary	Shape
Skeletal	Multiple, peripheral	Yes	Yes	Long, cylindrical
Cardiac	Single, central	Yes, intercalated disks	No	Branched, short
Smooth	Single, central	No	No	Spindle-shaped, long

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines cavities. It is classified by cell shape and layers.

• Shapes: Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), columnar (tall).

• Layers: Simple (single layer), stratified (multiple layers).

Functions and Locations

• Simple squamous: Diffusion, filtration; found in air sacs of lungs, artery walls, blood vessels, internal body cavities.

• Simple cuboidal: Secretion; ducts of exocrine glands, microvilli on apical surface.

• Simple columnar: Absorption; digestive tract, urinary tract, gallbladder, microvilli on apical surface.

• Stratified columnar: Protection; found in tracts, trachea, bronchi.

• Pseudostratified: Secretion; single cells secrete mucus throughout.

• Stratified squamous: Protection; epidermis, mouth, external openings. Keratinized (top layers dead), non-keratinized (top layers alive).

• Transitional epithelium: Stretch; rounded surface cells, sometimes with two nuclei.

Integumentary System

Layers of the Epidermis

The epidermis is the outermost layer of skin, composed of several strata.

• Stratum basale: Deepest layer, contains melanocytes.

• Stratum spinosum

• Stratum granulosum: Thin, grainy layer.

• Stratum lucidum: Only in thick skin (palms, soles).

• Stratum corneum: Thick, outermost layer.

Hair and Associated Structures

Hair is a modified epidermal structure with several associated components.

• Hair bulb: Base of hair follicle.

• Hair root: Embedded in skin.

• Hair papilla: Contains blood vessels.

• Hair matrix: Growth region.

• Melanocytes: Pigment-producing cells.

• Arrector pili muscle: Causes hair to stand up.

Glands and Sensory Structures

• Sebaceous gland: Secretes oil onto hair follicle.

• Sudoriferous (sweat) gland: Extends from epidermis into dermis.

• Meissner's corpuscle: Touch receptor in dermal papillae.

• Pacinian corpuscle: Pressure receptor, onion-like appearance.

Additional info: Some terms and structures were inferred and expanded for completeness and clarity based on standard Anatomy & Physiology curriculum.