Anatomy & Physiology Lab Practical Study Guide: Axial and Appendicular Skeleton, Major Muscles, and Joints

Axial Skeleton

Skull

The skull is composed of several bones that protect the brain and form the structure of the face. Students should be able to identify the listed bones and features on an articulated skull, except for the auditory ossicles and mandible.

• Cranium (protects the brain):

  • Frontal bone

  • Parietal bone (2)

  • Temporal bone (2)

    • Zygomatic process

    • Mastoid process

    • External acoustic meatus

    • Styloid process

    • Petrous part

    • Internal acoustic meatus

    • Jugular foramen

    • Carotid canal

  • Occipital bone (1)

    • Foramen magnum

    • Occipital condyle (bilateral)

    • External occipital protuberance

  • Sphenoid bone (1)

    • Sella turcica

    • Greater wing (bilateral)

    • Lesser wing (bilateral)

    • Optic canal (bilateral)

    • Pterygoid process (bilateral)

  • Ethmoid bone (1)

    • Cribriform plate (bilateral) with cribriform foramina

    • Crista galli

    • Perpendicular plate

    • Middle nasal concha (bilateral)

• Cranial cavity sutures:

  • Coronal suture

  • Sagittal suture

  • Squamous suture (bilateral)

  • Lambdoid suture

• Facial bones:

  • Nasal bone (2)

  • Maxilla (2)

    • Alveolar process

    • Dental alveolus (8)

    • Palatine process

    • Temporal process

  • Mandible (1)

    • Mandibular body

    • Mandibular ramus (bilateral)

    • Mandibular angle (bilateral)

    • Coronoid process (bilateral)

    • Mandibular notch (bilateral)

    • Condylar process (bilateral)

    • Alveolar process

    • Dental alveolus (16)

    • Mandibular foramen (bilateral)

    • Mental foramen (bilateral)

  • Lacrimal (2)

  • Palatine (2)

  • Inferior nasal concha (2)

  • Vomer (1)

  • Zygomatic bone (2)

  • Orbit (bilateral)

  • Hard palate (bilateral)

  • Nasal septum

  • Auditory ossicles (3 sets of 2)

  • Paranasal sinuses: Frontal, Maxillary, Sphenoidal, Ethmoidal

  • Hyoid bone (1)

Vertebral Column

The vertebral column supports the body and protects the spinal cord. It is divided into regions, each with characteristic vertebrae.

• Cervical vertebrae (7):

  • Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2) – know by name and features (dens on axis)

  • Body, vertebral foramen, transverse process (bilateral), spinous process, superior/inferior articular processes and facets

• Thoracic vertebrae (12):

  • Superior/inferior costal facets, transverse costal facet, body, vertebral foramen, spinous process, superior/inferior articular processes and facets

• Lumbar vertebrae (5):

  • Body, vertebral foramen, transverse process, spinous process, superior/inferior articular processes and facets

• Sacrum (1), Coccyx (1)

• Intervertebral discs

Thoracic Cage

The thoracic cage protects vital organs and supports the pectoral girdle.

• Sternum (manubrium, body, xiphoid process)

• Ribs (12 pairs):

  • True ribs (1–7), False ribs (8–12), Floating ribs (11–12)

• Costal cartilage

Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

• Pectoral girdle:

  • Clavicle (2)

  • Scapula (2):

    • Spine, acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity, supraspinous/infraspinous/subscapular fossae

• Humerus (2):

  • Head, anatomical neck, greater/lesser tubercle, intertubercular sulcus, surgical neck, deltoid tuberosity, olecranon fossa, trochlea, capitulum, medial/lateral epicondyles

• Radius (2):

  • Head, neck, radial tuberosity, styloid process, ulnar notch

• Ulna (2):

  • Olecranon process, trochlear notch, coronoid process, radial notch, styloid process

• Hand:

  • Carpals (8), Metacarpals (5), Phalanges (14)

Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

• Pelvic girdle:

  • Coxal bones (2): ilium, ischium, pubis

  • Acetabulum, obturator foramen, iliac crest, anterior superior iliac spine, greater sciatic notch, ischial tuberosity, ischial spine, pubic symphysis

• Femur (2):

  • Head, neck, greater/lesser trochanter, gluteal tuberosity, linea aspera, medial/lateral condyles, medial/lateral epicondyles, patellar surface

• Patella (2)

• Tibia (2):

  • Medial/lateral condyles, tibial tuberosity, anterior crest, medial malleolus

• Fibula (2):

  • Head, lateral malleolus

• Foot:

  • Tarsals (7), Metatarsals (5), Phalanges (14)

Joints and Ligaments

• Temporomandibular joint

• Shoulder joint (glenohumeral)

• Elbow joint

• Hip joint

• Knee joint:

  • Quadriceps tendon, patellar ligament, medial/lateral meniscus, anterior/posterior cruciate ligaments, tibial/fibular collateral ligaments

Muscular System

Muscles of Mastication (Chewing)

• Masseter: Elevates the mandible

• Temporalis: Elevates and retracts the mandible

• Medial pterygoid: Synergist with masseter and temporalis; side-to-side grinding

• Lateral pterygoid: Protracts mandible; side-to-side movement

• Buccinator: Compresses cheek (whistling, sucking)

• Sternocleidomastoid: Flexes and laterally rotates the head

Muscles of the Thorax and Shoulder

• Pectoralis major: Flexes, adducts, and medially rotates arm

• Deltoid: Abducts arm

• Trapezius: Stabilizes, elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula

• Latissimus dorsi: Extends, adducts, and medially rotates arm

• Serratus anterior: Protracts scapula

• Rotator cuff group (Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Subscapularis, Teres minor): Stabilize shoulder joint

Muscles of the Arm

• Biceps brachii: Flexes elbow, supinates forearm

• Brachialis: Flexes elbow

• Triceps brachii: Extends elbow

• Brachioradialis: Flexes forearm

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand

• Flexor and extensor groups: Move wrist and fingers

Muscles of the Hip and Thigh

• Gluteus maximus: Extends thigh, laterally rotates and abducts thigh

• Adductor group: Adducts thigh

• Sartorius: Flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh

• Quadriceps femoris group (Rectus femoris, Vastus lateralis, Vastus medialis, Vastus intermedius): Extends leg at knee

• Hamstring group (Biceps femoris, Semitendinosus, Semimembranosus): Flexes leg at knee, extends thigh

Muscles of the Leg and Foot

• Tibialis anterior: Dorsiflexes foot

• Gastrocnemius: Plantar flexes foot

• Soleus: Plantar flexes foot

• Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon: Attaches calf muscles to heel

Key Terms and Definitions

• Foramen: An opening or hole in a bone for nerves and blood vessels

• Process: A projection or outgrowth of bone

• Condyle: A rounded articular projection

• Epicondyle: Raised area above a condyle

• Fossa: A shallow depression

• Tuberosity: Large rounded projection

• Trochanter: Large, blunt, irregular surface (femur only)

• Suture: Immovable joint between skull bones

Sample Table: Types of Ribs

Type	Number of Pairs	Description
True ribs	7	Attach directly to sternum via costal cartilage
False ribs	5	Attach indirectly or not at all to sternum
Floating ribs	2	No anterior attachment to sternum

Additional info:

• Students are expected to use models (e.g., "Helga") and digital resources (PAL, Mastering A&P) for identification practice.

• Muscle origin, insertion, and action are required for some muscles; for others, only group action or identification is needed.

• Lab practical exams will focus on identification and application of anatomical knowledge.