Anatomy & Physiology Lab Study Guide: Body Organization, Tissues, and Skeletal System

Body Organization and Anatomical Terminology

Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to describe the locations of structures in relation to other structures or locations in the body.

• Superior/Inferior: Superior means above; inferior means below.

• Anterior/Posterior: Anterior refers to the front; posterior refers to the back.

• Medial/Lateral: Medial means toward the midline; lateral means away from the midline.

• Superficial/Deep: Superficial means closer to the surface; deep means farther from the surface.

• Proximal/Distal: Proximal means closer to the point of attachment; distal means farther from the point of attachment.

Example: The heart is medial to the lungs; the skin is superficial to the muscles.

Sectional Planes

Sectional planes are used to divide the body or organs for anatomical study.

• Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

• Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides exactly at the midline; the parasagittal plane is offset from the midline.

• Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

Major and Specific Body Cavities

The body contains several cavities that house organs and provide protection.

• Dorsal cavity: Includes the cranial and vertebral cavities.

• Ventral cavity: Includes the thoracic (pleural, pericardial, mediastinum) and abdominopelvic cavities.

Example: The lungs are located in the pleural cavities; the heart is in the pericardial cavity.

Serous Membranes and Associated Cavities

Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs, reducing friction.

• Pleura: Surrounds the lungs.

• Pericardium: Surrounds the heart.

• Peritoneum: Surrounds abdominal organs.

Visceral layer covers the organ; parietal layer lines the cavity wall.

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided for anatomical reference.

• Quadrants: Right/left upper, right/left lower.

• Regions: Right/left hypochondriac, epigastric, right/left lumbar, umbilical, right/left iliac, hypogastric.

Example: The liver is primarily in the right upper quadrant and right hypochondriac region.

Organ Systems and Their Functions

Major Organ Systems

The body is organized into systems that perform specific functions.

• Endocrine: Hormone production and regulation.

• Respiratory: Gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide).

• Digestive: Breakdown and absorption of nutrients.

• Lymphatic: Immune response and fluid balance.

• Cardiovascular: Circulation of blood and nutrients.

• Reproductive: Production of offspring.

• Urinary: Removal of waste and regulation of water balance.

Microscopy and Cell Structure

Parts of a Light Microscope

Understanding the components of a microscope is essential for laboratory work.

• Arm, base, head, ocular lens, objective lens, nosepiece, coarse focus knob, fine focus knob

• Light/brightness control, power switch, stage, mechanical stage control

Example: The coarse focus knob is used for initial focusing; the fine focus knob is for precise adjustments.

Cellular Components

Cells contain various organelles that perform specific functions.

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, chromatin, chromosomes, nucleus, nuclear envelope, nucleolus

• Cytoskeleton, lysosome, centriole, flagellum, microvilli, cilia, golgi apparatus, rough/smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, peroxisome

Cell Transport and Division

Diffusion and Osmosis

Cells exchange substances with their environment through various transport mechanisms.

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

• Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic solutions: Affect cell volume and shape.

Example: Placing a cell in a hypertonic solution causes it to shrink; in a hypotonic solution, it swells.

Formula:

$J = -D \frac{dC}{dx}$

Where J is the flux, D is the diffusion coefficient, and $\frac{dC}{dx}$ is the concentration gradient.

Stages of Mitosis and Meiosis

Cell division is essential for growth and reproduction.

• Mitosis: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

• Meiosis: Two divisions resulting in four haploid cells.

Example: Mitosis produces identical daughter cells; meiosis produces gametes.

Tissues and Histology

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues cover surfaces and line cavities.

• Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, stratified columnar, transitional epithelium

Example: Simple squamous epithelium lines blood vessels; stratified squamous epithelium forms the skin.

Types of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues support, bind, and protect organs.

• Areolar, adipose, dense regular, dense irregular, hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage, bone, blood

Example: Adipose tissue stores fat; bone tissue provides structural support.

Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

The integumentary system protects the body and regulates temperature.

• Epidermis: Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

• Dermis: Papillary layer, reticular layer

• Hypodermis: Subcutaneous fat and connective tissue

Associated structures: Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicle, arrector pili muscle, nails, sensory receptors

Skeletal System

Major Bones of the Body

The skeletal system provides support, protection, and movement.

• Cranial bones: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

• Facial bones: Maxilla, mandible, zygomatic, sphenoid, ethmoid, lacrimal, nasal, palatine, vomer

• Vertebrae: Atlas, axis, cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx

• Ribs: True, false, floating

• Pectoral girdle: Clavicle, scapula

• Upper limb: Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges

• Pelvic girdle: Ilium, ischium, pubis

• Lower limb: Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, patella

Bony Features and Landmarks

Bony features are important for muscle attachment and joint formation.

• Temporal: Mastoid process, styloid process, external auditory meatus, mandibular fossa, zygomatic process

• Occipital: Condyles, foramen magnum

• Sphenoid: Sella turcica, optic canal

• Ethmoid: Cribriform plate, crista galli, perpendicular plate

• Mandible: Coronoid process, mandibular condyle

Vertebral Parts and Cranial Sutures

• Vertebral parts: Body, vertebral canal, transverse process, spinous process, intervertebral discs

• Cranial sutures: Frontal, sagittal, squamous, lambdoid

Other Bone Landmarks

• Scapula: Spine, acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity

• Humerus: Greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, head, olecranon fossa, trochlea, capitulum, medial/lateral epicondyle

• Ulna: Olecranon process, trochlear notch, coronoid process, radial notch, styloid process

• Radius: Head, tuberosity, styloid process

• Pelvis: Acetabulum, pubic symphysis, pubic arch, ischial tuberosity, obturator foramen, iliac crest, greater sciatic notch

• Femur: Head, neck, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, lateral/medial condyles

• Tibia: Tibial tuberosity, anterior crest, medial malleolus

• Fibula: Head, lateral malleolus

Bone	Key Features	Location
Femur	Head, neck, greater/lesser trochanter, condyles	Thigh (upper leg)
Scapula	Spine, acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity	Shoulder
Mandible	Coronoid process, mandibular condyle	Lower jaw
Vertebra	Body, transverse/spinous process, vertebral canal	Spine

Additional info: Some details and examples have been expanded for clarity and completeness.