Anatomy & Physiology Lab Study Guide: Body Organization, Tissues, and Skeletal System

Body Organization and Anatomical Terminology

Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to describe the locations of structures in relation to other structures or locations in the body.

• Superior/Inferior: Superior means above; inferior means below.

• Anterior/Posterior: Anterior refers to the front; posterior refers to the back.

• Medial/Lateral: Medial means toward the midline; lateral means away from the midline.

• Superficial/Deep: Superficial means closer to the surface; deep means further from the surface.

• Proximal/Distal: Proximal means closer to the point of attachment; distal means further from the point of attachment.

Sectional Planes

Sectional planes are used to divide the body or organs for anatomical study.

• Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.

• Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left portions. The midsagittal plane divides exactly at the midline.

• Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior portions.

Body Cavities and Membranes

Major and Specific Body Cavities

The body contains several cavities that house organs and provide protection.

• Dorsal cavity: Includes the cranial and vertebral cavities.

• Anterior (ventral) cavity: Includes thoracic (pleural, pericardial, mediastinum) and abdominopelvic cavities.

Serous Membranes and Associated Cavities

Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs, providing lubrication and protection.

• Pleura: Surrounds the lungs.

• Pericardium: Surrounds the heart.

• Peritoneum: Surrounds abdominal organs.

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided for anatomical reference.

• Quadrants: Right and left upper quadrant, right and left lower quadrant.

• Regions: Right/left hypochondriac, right/left lumbar, right/left iliac, epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric.

Organ Systems and Their Organs

Major Organ Systems

Each organ system has specific organs and functions.

• Endocrine

• Respiratory

• Digestive

• Lymphatic

• Cardiovascular

• Reproductive

• Urinary

Microscopy and Cell Structure

Parts of a Light Microscope

Understanding the microscope is essential for studying cells and tissues.

• Arm, base, head, ocular lens, objective lenses, nosepiece, coarse/fine focus knob, light, light intensity control, power switch, stage, mechanical stage control.

Animal Cell Structures

Cells contain various organelles, each with specific functions.

• Nucleus

• Cytoskeleton

• Lysosome

• Centrioles

• Flagellum

• Microvilli

• Cilia

• Golgi apparatus

• Rough/smooth endoplasmic reticulum

• Ribosome

• Mitochondria

• Peroxisome

Stages of Mitosis and Meiosis

Cell division occurs through mitosis and meiosis, each with distinct stages.

• Mitosis: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

• Meiosis: Similar stages, but includes two rounds of division.

Diffusion and Osmosis

Movement of substances across membranes is essential for cell function.

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

• Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic solutions: Affect cell volume and shape.

Example: Placing red blood cells in NaCl solutions demonstrates osmotic effects.

Tissues and Histology

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues cover surfaces and line cavities.

• Simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified columnar, stratified squamous, transitional epithelium.

Types of Connective Tissue

Connective tissues support, bind, and protect organs.

• Areolar, adipose, dense regular/irregular, hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage, bone, blood.

Example: Adipose tissue stores fat; hyaline cartilage provides flexible support.

Integumentary System

Components of the Integumentary System

The skin and its associated structures protect the body and regulate temperature.

• Epidermis: Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, corneum.

• Dermis: Papillary and reticular layers.

• Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer.

• Accessory structures: Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicle, nail, sensory receptors.

Skeletal System

Bones of the Skeletal System

The skeletal system provides structure, protection, and movement.

• Facial bones: Maxilla, mandible, zygomatic, sphenoid, ethmoid, lacrimal, nasal, palatine, vomer.

• Vertebrae: Atlas, axis, cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx.

• Ribs: True, false, floating.

• Pectoral girdle: Clavicle, scapula.

• Upper limb: Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges.

• Pelvic girdle: Ilium, ischium, pubis.

• Lower limb: Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, calcaneus, talus, metatarsals, phalanges, patella.

Bony Features and Landmarks

Bony landmarks are used for identification and attachment of muscles and ligaments.

• Temporal: Mastoid process, styloid process, external auditory meatus, mandibular fossa, zygomatic process.

• Occipital: Condyles, foramen magnum.

• Sphenoid: Sella turcica, optic canal.

• Ethmoid: Cribriform plate, crista galli, perpendicular plate.

• Mandible: Coronoid process, mandibular condyle.

• Maxilla: Palatine process.

• Vertebral parts: Body, vertebral canal, transverse process, spinous process, intervertebral discs.

• Sternum: Manubrium, body, xiphoid process.

• Scapula: Spine, acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity/fossa.

• Humerus: Greater tubercle, lesser tubercle, head, olecranon fossa, trochlea, capitulum, medial epicondyle, lateral epicondyle.

• Ulna: Olecranon process, trochlear notch, coronoid process, radial notch, styloid process.

• Radius: Head, tuberosity, styloid process.

• Pelvic bones: Acetabulum, pubic symphysis, pubic arch, ischial tuberosity, obturator foramen, iliac crest, greater sciatic notch.

• Femur: Head, neck, greater trochanter, lesser trochanter, lateral/medial condyles.

• Tibia: Tibial tuberosity, anterior crest, medial malleolus.

• Fibula: Head, lateral malleolus.

Structure of an Osseous Model

Osseous tissue forms the rigid structure of bones.

• Osteon, periosteum, endosteum, central canal, perforating canal, lacunae, lamellae, osteocyte, trabeculae.

Additional info:

• For practical exams, be able to identify these structures on models, diagrams, and histological slides.

• Understanding anatomical terminology and bony landmarks is essential for clinical applications and further study in health sciences.