Anatomy & Physiology Lab Study Guide: Endocrine, Blood, Circulation, and Organ Systems

Lab 1 – Endocrine System

Overview of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a network of glands that secrete hormones to regulate various bodily functions. It works closely with the nervous system but differs in its mechanisms and effects.

• Endocrine vs. Nervous System: The endocrine system uses chemical messengers (hormones) released into the bloodstream, resulting in slower but longer-lasting effects. The nervous system uses electrical impulses for rapid, short-term responses.

• Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that regulate physiology and behavior.

• Hormone Release: Hormones are released in response to specific stimuli and act on target organs or tissues.

• Examples of Endocrine Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, testes, ovaries.

Major Endocrine Glands and Hormones

• Pituitary Gland: Divided into anterior and posterior lobes; secretes hormones such as growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and oxytocin.

• Thyroid Gland: Produces thyroid hormones (T3, T4) that regulate metabolism.

• Adrenal Glands: Located above the kidneys; cortex produces corticosteroids (zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis), medulla produces catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine).

• Pancreas: Contains islets of Langerhans; alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin.

• Ovaries: Produce estrogen and progesterone.

• Testes: Produce testosterone.

Endocrine Microscopy

• Pituitary Gland: Anterior vs. posterior lobe histology.

• Thyroid Gland: Follicles, colloid, parafollicular cells.

• Adrenal Gland: Cortex (zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis), medulla.

• Pancreas: Islets of Langerhans vs. exocrine tissue.

• Ovaries/Testes: Follicles, corpora lutea, seminiferous tubules, Leydig cells.

Lab 2 – Blood, Blood Vessels, and Organ Review

Blood Composition and Cell Types

Blood is a connective tissue composed of plasma and formed elements. It performs transport, regulatory, and protective functions.

• ABO Blood Typing: Classification based on presence of A and/or B antigens on red blood cells.

• Rh Blood Typing: Based on presence (+) or absence (–) of Rh antigen (D antigen).

• Formed Elements: Erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), thrombocytes (platelets).

• Leukocytes: Granular (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils) and agranular (lymphocytes, monocytes).

Blood Typing and Transfusion

• Universal Donor: Type O negative.

• Universal Recipient: Type AB positive.

• Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn: Occurs when Rh-negative mother carries Rh-positive fetus; prevented by Rho-GAM.

Hemostasis (Blood Clotting)

• Steps: Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation.

• Common Disorders: Sickle cell anemia, leukemia, thrombocytosis, hemolytic anemia.

Lab 3 – Peripheral Circulation and the Lymphatic System

Human Pathways

Circulatory pathways include arteries and veins that transport blood throughout the body. Understanding the order of blood flow and the names of major vessels is essential.

• Major Arteries: Aorta, brachiocephalic artery, subclavian arteries, carotid arteries, femoral artery.

• Major Veins: Superior/inferior vena cava, jugular veins, subclavian veins, brachial veins.

• Pathway Diagrams: Used to trace the flow of blood through the heart and body.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream and provides immune defense.

• Lymph: Fluid collected from tissues, returned to blood via lymphatic vessels.

• Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph and house lymphocytes.

• Thymus: Site of T cell maturation.

• Spleen: Filters blood, recycles old RBCs, stores platelets.

• Immunity: Involves T cells (cell-mediated) and B cells (humoral); antibodies are proteins that target antigens.

Organ Identification and Anatomy

Abdominopelvic Cavity Organs

• Pancreas: Located near the stomach, has a lobulated appearance.

• Spleen: Highly vascular, located next to the stomach.

• Stomach: Large, with distinct lobes.

• Gall Bladder: Green in color, under the liver.

• Small Intestine: Divided into duodenum, jejunum, ileum.

• Large Intestine: Includes cecum, ascending, transverse, descending colon.

• Kidneys: Bean-shaped, located retroperitoneally.

• Adrenal Glands: Sit atop the kidneys.

• Ovaries/Testes: Ovaries are small, oval; testes are suspended in the scrotum.

• Uterus: Y-shaped in cats, with uterine horns.

Respiratory System Structures

• Esophagus: Muscular tube from mouth to stomach.

• Lungs: Main organs of respiration.

• Diaphragm: Muscular partition below the lungs, aids in breathing.

Major Blood Vessels

Superior Thoracic/Arm Veins

• Superior Vena Cava (SVC): Largest vein superior to the heart.

• Brachiocephalic Veins: Branch from SVC.

• Subclavian Veins: Branch from brachiocephalic veins.

• Jugular Veins: External and internal, drain the head and neck.

• Axillary Veins: Drain the arms.

Inferior Abdominal Arteries and Veins

• Abdominal Aorta: Main artery in the abdomen, gives rise to celiac trunk, superior/inferior mesenteric arteries, renal arteries, and iliac arteries.

• Inferior Vena Cava (IVC): Largest vein inferior to the heart, drains lower body.

• Renal Veins: Drain the kidneys.

• Iliac Arteries/Veins: Supply and drain the pelvis and lower limbs.

Table: Major Abdominal Arteries and Their Destinations

Artery	Destination
Celiac Trunk	Liver, stomach, spleen
Superior Mesenteric	Small intestine, part of large intestine
Inferior Mesenteric	Lower large intestine
Renal Arteries	Kidneys
Common Iliac	Pelvis, lower limbs

Cat Dissection and Comparative Anatomy

• Cat organ and vessel identification is used to reinforce human anatomy concepts.

• Videos and study guides are available for review.

Additional info: Some details, such as the specific histological features of endocrine glands and the steps of hemostasis, have been expanded for academic completeness.