Anatomy & Physiology Practical Exam 1 Study Guide

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Body Organization and Organ Systems

The Body

Understanding the organization of the human body is foundational in anatomy and physiology. This includes anatomical positions, planes, and terminology used to describe locations and regions.

Anatomical Position, Planes, and Sections: The standard anatomical position is standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, and palms facing forward. Planes include sagittal, frontal (coronal), and transverse.
Directional Terms: Terms such as superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal are used to describe locations.
Body Regions: The body is divided into regions such as the axial (head, neck, trunk) and appendicular (limbs).
Body Cavities: Major cavities include cranial, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic.
Serous Membranes: Thin membranes lining body cavities, such as pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), and peritoneum (abdominal organs).

Division of the Abdominopelvic Cavity

The abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided for clinical and anatomical reference.

Quadrants: Right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower.
Anatomical Regions/Divisions: Nine regions including epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, and others.

Organ Systems of A&P I

Major organ systems covered include the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems.

Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails, and associated glands. Functions include protection, sensation, and temperature regulation.
Skeletal System: Bones, cartilage, ligaments. Functions include support, movement, and mineral storage.
Muscular System: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Functions include movement, posture, and heat production.
Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves. Functions include control, communication, and integration of body activities.

Microscopy

Parts of the Compound Light Microscope and Their Functions

The compound light microscope is essential for viewing cells and tissues. Understanding its parts and their functions is crucial for laboratory work.

Eyepiece (Ocular Lens): Magnifies the image, typically 10x.
Objective Lenses: Provide varying magnification (e.g., 4x, 10x, 40x, 100x).
Stage: Holds the slide in place.
Condenser: Focuses light onto the specimen.
Coarse and Fine Focus: Adjusts the clarity of the image.

Using the Compound Light Microscope

Start with the lowest magnification.
Use coarse focus first, then fine focus.
Adjust light intensity and condenser for optimal viewing.

Care of the Compound Light Microscope

Handle with care, use both hands.
Clean lenses with lens paper only.
Store covered and in a safe location.

Cell Anatomy and Division

Levels of Organization

Cells are the basic unit of life, organized into tissues, organs, and organ systems.

Atoms/Molecules to Organism: Hierarchical organization from chemical level to complete organism.

Parts of the Cell and Their Functions

Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).
Cytoplasm: Site of cellular activities.
Plasma Membrane: Controls entry and exit of substances.
Organelles: Specialized structures (e.g., mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum).

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle describes the life of a cell, including growth and division.

Mitosis: Division of the nucleus resulting in two identical daughter cells.
Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.
Stages of Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
Major Events of Each Phase: Chromosome condensation, alignment, separation, and formation of new nuclei.

Somatic Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Purpose: Growth, repair, and maintenance of tissues.
Recognition in Cells: Identifying stages under the microscope.

Cell Plasma Membrane and Selective Permeability

Structure of the Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Phospholipid Bilayer: Hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Proteins: Channels, carriers, receptors.
Selective Permeability: Allows certain molecules to pass while restricting others.

Diffusion and Osmosis

Movement of molecules across membranes is essential for cellular function.

Diffusion: Movement of solutes from high to low concentration.
Osmosis: Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.
Filtration: Movement of substances due to pressure.

Key Equations

Fick's Law of Diffusion:

Osmotic Pressure:

Tonicity: Refers to the effect of a solution on cell volume (isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic).

Illustration from Experiment Videos

Diffusion and osmosis experiments demonstrate movement of molecules and water.
Observe red blood cells under different tonicities (isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic).

Tissues

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues cover surfaces and line cavities, providing protection, absorption, and secretion.

Simple Squamous Epithelium: Single layer, flat cells; found in alveoli, blood vessels.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: Single layer, cube-shaped cells; found in kidney tubules.
Simple Columnar Epithelium: Single layer, tall cells; found in digestive tract.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium: Appears layered, but all cells touch the basement membrane; found in respiratory tract.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Non-keratinized/Keratinized): Multiple layers; keratinized in skin, non-keratinized in mouth/esophagus.
Transitional Epithelium: Stretches; found in urinary bladder.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues support, bind, and protect organs.

Areolar (Loose) Connective Tissue: Cushions organs.
Reticular Connective Tissue: Forms stroma of lymphoid organs.
Dense Regular/Irregular Connective Tissue: Provides strength; regular in tendons, irregular in dermis.
Adipose Tissue: Stores fat.
Hyaline Cartilage: Supports and reinforces; found in nose, trachea.
Elastic Cartilage: Maintains shape; found in ear.
Fibrocartilage: Absorbs shock; found in intervertebral discs.
Bone: Rigid support; compact and spongy types.
Blood: Transports substances.

Muscular Tissue

Muscle tissue is responsible for movement.

Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated.
Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs.
Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated.

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue transmits electrical impulses.

Neurons: Conduct impulses.
Neuroglia: Support and protect neurons.

Integumentary System

Major Regions of the Skin and the Hypodermis

The skin consists of the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis, each with distinct functions.

Epidermis: Outermost layer; provides protection.
Dermis: Middle layer; contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves.
Hypodermis: Deepest layer; stores fat, anchors skin.

Cells of the Epidermis

Keratinocytes: Produce keratin, provide strength.
Melanocytes: Produce melanin, protect against UV radiation.
Langerhans Cells: Immune function.
Merkel Cells: Sensory receptors.

Layers and Structure of the Dermis

Papillary Layer: Superficial, contains capillaries and sensory receptors.
Reticular Layer: Deep, contains dense connective tissue.

Accessory Organs

Glands: Sweat (eccrine, apocrine), sebaceous.
Receptors: Free nerve endings, hair root plexus, tactile corpuscles (Meissner's), lamellated corpuscles (Pacinian).
Hair: Protection, sensation.
Nails: Protection.

Skin Histology

Microscopic examination of skin layers and cells.

Two-Point Discrimination Testing

Assesses sensory perception and nerve density in skin.

Summary Table: Major Tissue Types and Their Functions

Tissue Type	Main Function	Location Example
Epithelial	Protection, absorption, secretion	Skin, lining of GI tract
Connective	Support, binding, transport	Tendons, blood, bone
Muscular	Movement	Skeletal muscles, heart, digestive tract
Nervous	Communication, control	Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Additional info: For further review, students are encouraged to watch recommended videos on diffusion, osmosis, and tonicity, and to observe blood cells under different tonicities as listed in the syllabus.