Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Chapters 1 to 3

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definitions and Relationships

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Physiology: The study of the function of body parts and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.

• Relationship: Anatomy provides the structure, while physiology explains the function; both are interdependent.

Levels of Organization

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular Level: Cells and their organelles

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ Level: Contains two or more types of tissues

• Organ System Level: Organs that work closely together

• Organismal Level: All organ systems combined to make the whole organism

Main Functions of Organ Systems

• Integumentary: Protection, temperature regulation

• Skeletal: Support, movement, protection

• Muscular: Movement, heat production

• Nervous: Control, communication

• Endocrine: Hormone production, regulation

• Cardiovascular: Transport of nutrients and gases

• Lymphatic: Immunity, fluid balance

• Respiratory: Gas exchange

• Digestive: Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

• Urinary: Waste elimination, water balance

• Reproductive: Production of offspring

Life Processes and Essentials for Life

• Life Processes: Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction

• Essentials for Life: Water, nutrients, oxygen, stable body temperature, atmospheric pressure

Directional Terms

• Superior/Inferior: Above/below

• Anterior/Posterior: Front/back

• Medial/Lateral: Toward/away from midline

• Proximal/Distal: Closer/farther from origin

Planes/Sections

• Sagittal: Divides body into left and right

• Frontal (Coronal): Divides body into anterior and posterior

• Transverse: Divides body into superior and inferior

Homeostasis

• Definition: Maintenance of a stable internal environment

• Components: Receptor, control center, effector

• Feedback: Negative feedback reduces stimulus; positive feedback enhances it

• Examples of Positive Feedback: Blood clotting, labor contractions

Body Cavities and Regions

• Body Cavities: Dorsal (cranial, vertebral), Ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic)

• Abdominal Regions: Nine regions (e.g., epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric)

Chapter 2: Chemical Basis of Life

Atomic Structure

• Atomic Weight/Mass: Sum of protons and neutrons

• Atomic Number: Number of protons

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons

Electrolytes and Ions

• Electrolytes: Substances that release ions in water

• Ions: Charged particles (cations and anions)

Enzymes

• Definition: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions

• Function: Lower activation energy

Chemical Reactions

• Exchange Reactions: AB + CD → AD + CB

• Reversible Reactions: Can proceed in both directions

Roles of Ions in the Body

• Sodium, Potassium, Calcium: Nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction

Denaturation of Proteins

• Definition: Loss of protein structure due to heat, pH, or chemicals

pH Scale

• Measures: Hydrogen ion concentration

• Neutral: pH 7

• Acidic: pH < 7

• Alkaline (Basic): pH > 7

• Equation: $pH = -\log[H^+]$

Organic vs. Inorganic Substances

• Organic: Contains carbon (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids)

• Inorganic: Does not contain carbon (e.g., water, salts)

Functions of Organic Substances

• Carbohydrates: Energy source

• Proteins: Structure, enzymes

• Lipids: Energy storage, cell membranes

• Nucleic Acids: Genetic information

Atoms, Ions, and Bonds

• Atoms: Basic unit of matter

• Ions: Charged atoms

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons

DNA and RNA

• DNA: Double-stranded, contains deoxyribose, bases A-T, C-G

• RNA: Single-stranded, contains ribose, bases A-U, C-G

• Complementary Base Pairing: A-T (DNA), A-U (RNA), C-G

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

• Protons: Positive charge

• Neutrons: No charge

• Electrons: Negative charge

Chapter 3: Cell Structure and Function

Organelles and Their Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material, controls cell activities

• Mitochondria: ATP production

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins

• Lysosomes: Digestion of cellular waste

Cell Membrane Structure and Function

• Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

• Function: Selective permeability, protection, communication

Nucleus and Its Membrane

• Structure: Nuclear envelope, nucleolus

• Function: Houses DNA, site of ribosome assembly

Types of Diffusion and Active Transport

• Simple Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration

• Facilitated Diffusion: Uses transport proteins

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP)

• Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Bulk transport into/out of cell

Cell Division

• Major Events: Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis

Major Types of Tissues

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities

• Connective: Supports, protects, binds tissues

• Muscle: Movement

• Nervous: Communication

Epithelial Tissue Types

• Simple: Single layer

• Stratified: Multiple layers

• Squamous: Flat cells

• Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells

• Columnar: Tall cells

Connective Tissue Components

• Cells: Fibroblasts, adipocytes, etc.

• Fibers: Collagen, elastic, reticular

• Ground Substance: Matrix

Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal: Voluntary movement

• Cardiac: Heart, involuntary

• Smooth: Walls of organs, involuntary

Nervous Tissue

• Function: Transmit electrical signals

• Location: Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands

• Endocrine: Secrete hormones into blood

• Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts

DNA vs. RNA

• Nucleotides: DNA (A, T, C, G), RNA (A, U, C, G)

• Structure: DNA double helix, RNA single strand

• Function: DNA stores genetic info, RNA involved in protein synthesis

• Translation vs. Transcription: Transcription: DNA → RNA; Translation: RNA → Protein

Bond Type	Description	Example
Ionic	Transfer of electrons	NaCl
Covalent	Sharing of electrons	H2O

Tissue Type	Structure	Function	Location
Epithelial	Sheets of cells	Protection, absorption	Skin, lining of organs
Connective	Cells in matrix	Support, binding	Bones, tendons
Muscle	Long fibers	Movement	Muscles, heart
Nervous	Neurons, glial cells	Communication	Brain, nerves