Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Core Concepts and Systems

Anatomy & Physiology: Core Concepts and Systems

Introduction

This study guide covers foundational topics in Anatomy & Physiology, including cellular structure, tissue types, body organization, physiological processes, and the integration of organ systems. The notes are structured to provide clear definitions, explanations, and examples to support exam preparation.

General Principles

Anatomy vs. Physiology

• Anatomy: The study of the structure and physical organization of living organisms.

• Physiology: The study of the functions and processes of the body and its parts.

• Example: Anatomy describes the heart's chambers; physiology explains how the heart pumps blood.

Levels of Complexity

• Organizational hierarchy: Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

• Each level builds upon the previous, increasing in complexity and specialization.

• Example: Muscle tissue (tissue level) is made of muscle cells (cellular level).

Cell Parts and Their Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Synthesizes proteins (rough ER) and lipids (smooth ER).

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.

• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for waste breakdown.

Differences Between DNA and RNA

• DNA: Double-stranded, contains deoxyribose sugar, bases are A, T, C, G.

• RNA: Single-stranded, contains ribose sugar, bases are A, U, C, G.

• Function: DNA stores genetic information; RNA is involved in protein synthesis.

Cell Cycle

• Phases: G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (growth), M (mitosis)

• Ensures proper cell division and genetic material distribution.

Types of Transport and Their Differences

• Passive Transport: Movement of substances without energy (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against concentration gradients.

• Example: Sodium-potassium pump is an active transport mechanism.

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Regulation

• Intrinsic Regulation: Local control within an organ or tissue (autoregulation).

• Extrinsic Regulation: Control by nervous or endocrine systems, affecting multiple organs.

Homeostasis

• The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Involves feedback mechanisms (negative and positive feedback).

• Example: Regulation of body temperature.

Body Organization

Anatomical Directional Terms

• Anterior/Posterior: Front/back

• Lateral/Medial: Away from/toward the midline

• Proximal/Distal: Closer to/farther from the point of attachment

Body Cavities

• Dorsal cavity: Contains the brain and spinal cord.

• Ventral cavity: Contains thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

• Other cavities: Cranial, spinal, thoracic, pelvic, etc.

Body Regions

• Examples: Lumbar (lower back), cephalic (head), brachial (arm), umbilical (navel), hypogastric (below stomach), pubic, inguinal (groin), etc.

Anatomical Landmarks

• Examples: Mentis (chin), manus (hand), axilla (armpit), etc.

Cellular and Molecular Processes

Basic Functions of the 11 Body Systems

• Each system has specialized functions (e.g., circulatory system transports blood, nervous system transmits signals).

• Systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

Ions and Covalent Bonds

• Ions: Atoms or molecules with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Chemical bonds formed by sharing electron pairs between atoms.

Characteristics of Water

• High heat capacity, solvent properties, reactivity, cushioning.

• Essential for chemical reactions and temperature regulation.

Hydrolysis vs. Dehydration Synthesis

• Hydrolysis: Breaking down molecules by adding water.

• Dehydration Synthesis: Forming larger molecules by removing water.

• Example: Formation and breakdown of carbohydrates.

Buffers

• Substances that minimize changes in pH by accepting or donating hydrogen ions.

• Example: Bicarbonate buffer system in blood.

Macromolecules and Their Characteristics

• Carbohydrates: Energy source; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.

• Lipids: Energy storage, insulation; triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.

• Proteins: Structure, enzymes, transport; made of amino acids.

• Nucleic Acids: Genetic information; DNA and RNA.

Tissues and Cellular Specialization

Parts of a Neuron

• Cell body (soma): Contains nucleus and organelles.

• Dendrites: Receive signals.

• Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.

Cell Types and Their Functions

• Chondrocytes: Cartilage cells.

• Osteoblasts: Bone-forming cells.

• Macrophages: Immune cells that engulf pathogens.

• Mast cells: Release histamine in allergic responses.

• Fibroblasts: Produce connective tissue fibers.

Tissue Types and Characteristics

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and protects organs.

• Muscle Tissue: Produces movement.

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical impulses.

Ability of Different Tissues to Repair

• Epithelial and connective tissues generally have good regenerative capacity.

• Muscle and nervous tissues have limited ability to repair.

Positive vs. Negative Feedback

• Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect of a stimulus to maintain homeostasis (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Enhances the effect of a stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).

Cell Membrane and Protein Function

• Cell Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins; controls entry/exit of substances.

• Proteins: Serve as channels, receptors, enzymes, and structural components.

Basic Functions of Different Tissue Types

• See "Tissue Types and Characteristics" above for summary.

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary movement, striated.

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, found in heart.

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of organs.

Endocrine vs. Exocrine Secretion

• Endocrine Glands: Release hormones directly into the bloodstream.

• Exocrine Glands: Secrete substances through ducts to an epithelial surface.

Functions of Ligament, Composition, and Function

• Ligaments: Connect bone to bone; composed mainly of dense regular connective tissue (collagen fibers).

• Provide joint stability.

Types of Connective Tissue and Their Abundance

• Loose Connective Tissue: Areolar, adipose, reticular.

• Dense Connective Tissue: Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic.

• Specialized Connective Tissue: Cartilage, bone, blood.

Physiological Processes

Sensible Perspiration

• Visible sweat excreted by sweat glands, aiding in thermoregulation.

Parts of Compact Bone

• Osteocytes: Mature bone cells located in lacunae.

• Periosteum: Dense connective tissue membrane covering bone surface.

• Blood Vessels: Supply nutrients and remove waste from bone tissue.

Muscle and Nervous System Control

• Muscle contraction is controlled by nervous system signals (action potentials).

• Integration of sensory input and motor output enables coordinated movement.