Anatomy & Physiology Study Guide: Feedback Loops, Nervous & Endocrine Systems, Cardiac Cycle, and More

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Q1. Describe, in detail, ANY/ALL negative feedback loops from this term.

Background

Topic: Homeostasis & Feedback Mechanisms

This question tests your understanding of negative feedback loops, which are essential for maintaining homeostasis in the body. Negative feedback loops counteract changes to keep physiological variables within a normal range.

Key Terms:

Negative Feedback Loop: A process that detects a change and triggers a response that opposes or reduces the initial change.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.
Components: Receptor (sensor), control center, effector.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify a physiological variable that is regulated by negative feedback (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose, blood pressure).
Describe the stimulus that causes the variable to deviate from its set point.
Explain the role of the receptor in detecting the change.
Describe how the control center (often the brain or endocrine gland) processes the information and sends signals to effectors.
Explain how the effector's response counteracts the original stimulus, bringing the variable back toward the set point.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Examples of negative feedback loops include:

Body Temperature Regulation: When body temperature rises, thermoreceptors signal the hypothalamus, which activates sweat glands and vasodilation to cool the body. When temperature drops, shivering and vasoconstriction are triggered to conserve heat.
Blood Glucose Regulation: High blood glucose stimulates insulin release from the pancreas, promoting glucose uptake by cells and lowering blood glucose. Low blood glucose triggers glucagon release, raising blood glucose levels.
Blood Pressure Regulation: Baroreceptors detect changes in blood pressure and signal the medulla oblongata, which adjusts heart rate and vessel diameter to restore normal pressure.

Each loop involves a sensor, control center, and effector working together to oppose the initial change and maintain homeostasis.

Q2. Identify negative and positive feedback loops from this term.

Background

Topic: Feedback Mechanisms

This question asks you to distinguish between negative and positive feedback loops, both of which regulate physiological processes but in different ways.

Key Terms:

Negative Feedback: Reduces or reverses a change.
Positive Feedback: Amplifies or increases the original change.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall examples of negative feedback loops (see previous question).
Think of physiological processes that involve positive feedback (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).
For each example, identify the stimulus, the response, and whether the response opposes or enhances the stimulus.
Classify each example as negative or positive feedback based on the direction of the response.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Negative Feedback Examples: Body temperature regulation, blood glucose regulation, blood pressure regulation.
Positive Feedback Examples: Blood clotting cascade (platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets), uterine contractions during childbirth (oxytocin release intensifies contractions).

Negative feedback maintains stability, while positive feedback drives processes to completion.

Q3. Provide/identify direct connections between the following systems: endocrine, nervous, cardiovascular.

Background

Topic: Integration of Body Systems

This question tests your understanding of how the endocrine, nervous, and cardiovascular systems interact to regulate body functions.

Key Terms:

Endocrine System: Releases hormones into the bloodstream.
Nervous System: Uses electrical and chemical signals for rapid communication.
Cardiovascular System: Transports blood, nutrients, hormones, and waste.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify hormones released by the endocrine system that affect the cardiovascular system (e.g., epinephrine, ADH).
Describe how the nervous system can directly influence heart rate and blood vessel diameter (e.g., via the autonomic nervous system).
Explain how the cardiovascular system transports hormones and neurotransmitters throughout the body.
Consider feedback loops that involve all three systems (e.g., stress response).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

The nervous system (autonomic division) directly controls heart rate and blood vessel tone, affecting blood pressure.
The endocrine system releases hormones (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine, ADH) that influence cardiovascular function.
The cardiovascular system transports hormones and neurotransmitters to target tissues.
Example: During stress, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system and stimulates the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine, increasing heart rate and blood pressure.

Q4. Identify NT functions from term.

Background

Topic: Neurotransmitters (NTs)

This question asks you to recall the functions of neurotransmitters discussed in class.

Key Terms:

Neurotransmitter (NT): Chemical messenger released by neurons to transmit signals across synapses.
Examples: Acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA, glutamate.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the neurotransmitters covered in your course.
For each NT, recall its primary function (e.g., excitatory, inhibitory, modulatory).
Identify the main locations or systems where each NT acts.
Note any specific effects or roles (e.g., muscle contraction, mood regulation).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Acetylcholine: Excitatory at neuromuscular junctions (muscle contraction); also involved in autonomic nervous system.
Dopamine: Modulates movement, motivation, and reward pathways.
Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
Norepinephrine: Increases alertness and arousal; part of sympathetic response.
GABA: Main inhibitory NT in the CNS.
Glutamate: Main excitatory NT in the CNS.

Q5. Describe, in detail, how specific NTs influence graded and action potentials (only the ones discussed in detail in this class).

Background

Topic: Neurophysiology

This question tests your understanding of how neurotransmitters affect the generation of graded and action potentials in neurons.

Key Terms and Concepts:

Graded Potential: Local change in membrane potential; can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing.
Action Potential: All-or-none electrical impulse that travels along the axon.
Excitatory NTs: Cause depolarization (e.g., glutamate, acetylcholine).
Inhibitory NTs: Cause hyperpolarization (e.g., GABA).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify which NTs are excitatory and which are inhibitory.
Describe how excitatory NTs cause depolarization by opening Na+ channels, leading to an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
Explain how inhibitory NTs open Cl- or K+ channels, causing hyperpolarization (IPSP).
Discuss how the summation of graded potentials at the axon hillock determines whether an action potential is generated.
Relate the specific NTs discussed in your class to these processes.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Excitatory NTs like glutamate and acetylcholine bind to receptors that open Na+ channels, causing depolarization (EPSP). If enough EPSPs summate, the threshold is reached and an action potential is triggered. Inhibitory NTs like GABA open Cl- channels, causing hyperpolarization (IPSP), making it less likely for an action potential to occur. The balance of EPSPs and IPSPs at the axon hillock determines neuronal firing.

Q6. Describe, in detail, any/all spinal reflexes discussed in this class.

Background

Topic: Reflex Arcs

This question tests your knowledge of spinal reflexes, which are rapid, involuntary responses to stimuli processed at the level of the spinal cord.

Key Terms:

Reflex Arc: The neural pathway involved in a reflex action.
Components: Receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector.
Examples: Stretch reflex, withdrawal reflex.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the types of spinal reflexes covered (e.g., patellar reflex, withdrawal reflex).
Describe the sequence of events in a reflex arc, starting from the stimulus.
Explain the role of sensory and motor neurons in the reflex.
Discuss whether the reflex is monosynaptic (one synapse) or polysynaptic (multiple synapses).

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Stretch Reflex (e.g., patellar reflex): Monosynaptic; muscle spindle detects stretch, sensory neuron synapses directly with motor neuron, causing muscle contraction.
Withdrawal Reflex: Polysynaptic; pain receptor activates sensory neuron, which synapses with interneurons in the spinal cord, leading to activation of motor neurons that withdraw the limb.

Q7. Differentiate between structures of the CNS and PNS.

Background

Topic: Organization of the Nervous System

This question tests your ability to distinguish between the central and peripheral nervous system structures.

Key Terms:

CNS (Central Nervous System): Brain and spinal cord.
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): All neural tissue outside the CNS (nerves, ganglia).

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the main structures of the CNS.
List the main structures of the PNS.
For each structure, determine if it is located within the brain/spinal cord or outside.
Consider examples such as cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and ganglia.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

CNS: Brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem), spinal cord.
PNS: Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, peripheral nerves, ganglia.

Q8. Identify structures as being either gray or white matter.

Background

Topic: Nervous Tissue Organization

This question tests your knowledge of the differences between gray and white matter in the nervous system.

Key Terms:

Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.
White Matter: Contains myelinated axons.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the composition of gray and white matter.
Identify examples of gray matter (e.g., cerebral cortex, nuclei).
Identify examples of white matter (e.g., tracts, corpus callosum).
For each structure, determine if it is primarily gray or white matter.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Gray Matter: Cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, dorsal horn of spinal cord.
White Matter: Corpus callosum, internal capsule, spinal cord columns.

Q9. Match cortical areas and sensory areas with the correct lobe of the cerebrum.

Background

Topic: Brain Anatomy

This question tests your knowledge of the functional areas of the cerebral cortex and their locations.

Key Terms:

Lobes: Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital.
Cortical Areas: Primary motor cortex, primary somatosensory cortex, visual cortex, auditory cortex, etc.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the major lobes of the cerebrum.
Recall which sensory or motor area is located in each lobe.
Match each area (e.g., primary visual cortex) to its corresponding lobe.
Consider the functions associated with each area to help with matching.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Frontal Lobe: Primary motor cortex, prefrontal cortex.
Parietal Lobe: Primary somatosensory cortex.
Temporal Lobe: Primary auditory cortex.
Occipital Lobe: Primary visual cortex.

Q10. Identify responses as being part of a parasympathetic or sympathetic response.

Background

Topic: Autonomic Nervous System

This question tests your ability to distinguish between the effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Key Terms:

Sympathetic: "Fight or flight" responses (increased heart rate, dilated pupils).
Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest" responses (decreased heart rate, increased digestion).

Step-by-Step Guidance

Recall the general effects of sympathetic and parasympathetic activation.
For each physiological response, determine if it prepares the body for action or for rest.
Classify each response accordingly.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Sympathetic: Increased heart rate, bronchodilation, pupil dilation, decreased digestion.
Parasympathetic: Decreased heart rate, bronchoconstriction, pupil constriction, increased digestion.

Q11. Match structures with senses they are responsible for stimulating/processing (match structure with appropriate special sense).

Background

Topic: Special Senses

This question tests your knowledge of the anatomical structures involved in each special sense.

Key Terms:

Special Senses: Vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, smell.
Structures: Retina, cochlea, olfactory epithelium, taste buds, semicircular canals.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the five special senses.
Recall the main structure(s) responsible for each sense.
Match each structure to its corresponding sense.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Retina: Vision
Cochlea: Hearing
Semicircular Canals: Equilibrium (balance)
Olfactory Epithelium: Smell
Taste Buds: Taste

Q12. Identify which receptor(s) are associated with each special sense.

Background

Topic: Sensory Receptors

This question tests your knowledge of the types of sensory receptors involved in each special sense.

Key Terms:

Photoreceptors: Detect light (vision).
Mechanoreceptors: Detect mechanical stimuli (hearing, equilibrium).
Chemoceptors: Detect chemicals (taste, smell).

Step-by-Step Guidance

List each special sense.
Recall the type of receptor associated with each sense.
Match the receptor type to the sense.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Vision: Photoreceptors (rods and cones)
Hearing: Mechanoreceptors (hair cells in cochlea)
Equilibrium: Mechanoreceptors (hair cells in vestibular apparatus)
Taste: Chemoreceptors (gustatory cells)
Smell: Chemoreceptors (olfactory receptor cells)

Q13. Match hormones with glands each is released from.

Background

Topic: Endocrine System

This question tests your knowledge of which glands secrete specific hormones.

Key Terms:

Hormones: Chemical messengers released by endocrine glands.
Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, etc.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List major endocrine glands and the hormones they produce.
For each hormone, recall its source gland.
Match each hormone to its gland.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Pituitary Gland: Growth hormone (GH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Thyroid Gland: Thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3)
Adrenal Gland: Cortisol, epinephrine
Pancreas: Insulin, glucagon

Q14. Match hormones with target glands.

Background

Topic: Endocrine System Regulation

This question tests your knowledge of which glands are targeted by specific hormones, especially tropic hormones.

Key Terms:

Tropic Hormones: Hormones that target other endocrine glands (e.g., TSH, ACTH).

Step-by-Step Guidance

List hormones that act on other glands (e.g., TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH).
Recall the target gland for each hormone.
Match each hormone to its target gland.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

TSH (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone): Targets the thyroid gland.
ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): Targets the adrenal cortex.
FSH/LH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone/Luteinizing Hormone): Target the gonads (ovaries/testes).

Q15. Match hormone with best (general) description/function.

Background

Topic: Hormone Functions

This question tests your ability to recall the general function of major hormones.

Key Terms:

Insulin: Lowers blood glucose.
Glucagon: Raises blood glucose.
Cortisol: Stress response, increases blood glucose.
Thyroxine: Increases metabolic rate.

Step-by-Step Guidance

List the hormones provided or discussed in class.
Recall the main function of each hormone.
Match each hormone to its general description/function.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Insulin: Lowers blood glucose by promoting cellular uptake.
Glucagon: Raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown.
Cortisol: Increases blood glucose and helps the body respond to stress.
Thyroxine (T4): Increases metabolic rate.

Q16. Describe, in detail, stages of the cardiac cycle.

Background

Topic: Cardiovascular Physiology

This question tests your understanding of the sequence of events in one heartbeat, including contraction and relaxation phases.

Key Terms:

Systole: Contraction phase.
Diastole: Relaxation phase.
Cardiac Cycle: Sequence of events in one heartbeat.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the main phases: atrial systole, ventricular systole, and diastole.
Describe what happens to the atria and ventricles during each phase.
Explain the status of the heart valves (open/closed) during each phase.
Discuss the flow of blood through the heart during each stage.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Atrial Systole: Atria contract, pushing blood into ventricles (AV valves open).
Ventricular Systole: Ventricles contract, AV valves close, semilunar valves open, blood ejected into arteries.
Diastole: All chambers relax, semilunar valves close, AV valves open, ventricles fill with blood.

Q17. Differentiate between RBCs and WBCs.

Background

Topic: Blood Components

This question tests your knowledge of the structure and function of red and white blood cells.

Key Terms:

RBCs (Erythrocytes): Carry oxygen using hemoglobin.
WBCs (Leukocytes): Defend against infection and disease.

Step-by-Step Guidance

Describe the main function of RBCs.
Describe the main function of WBCs.
Compare their structure (e.g., presence of nucleus, shape).
Discuss their relative abundance in blood.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

RBCs: Biconcave, no nucleus, contain hemoglobin, transport oxygen and CO2.
WBCs: Have nucleus, various shapes, involved in immune defense, less numerous than RBCs.

Q18. Describe, in detail, blood pressure regulation (including all factors that affect BP and all hormones that affect BP).

Background

Topic: Cardiovascular Regulation

This question tests your understanding of how blood pressure is regulated by neural, hormonal, and local mechanisms.

Key Terms and Formulas:

Blood Pressure (BP): Force exerted by blood on vessel walls.
Factors: Cardiac output, peripheral resistance, blood volume.
Hormones: ADH, aldosterone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, ANP.
Key Formula:

Step-by-Step Guidance

Identify the main determinants of blood pressure (cardiac output, resistance, blood volume).
Describe how the nervous system (baroreceptors, sympathetic/parasympathetic) regulates BP.
List the hormones that increase or decrease BP and explain their mechanisms (e.g., ADH increases water reabsorption, aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption).
Explain how changes in blood vessel diameter, heart rate, and blood volume affect BP.
Summarize the feedback mechanisms involved in BP regulation.

Try solving on your own before revealing the answer!

Final Answer:

Blood pressure is regulated by adjusting cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and blood volume. Neural mechanisms (baroreceptors, autonomic nervous system) provide rapid adjustments. Hormones like ADH and aldosterone increase BP by increasing blood volume, while ANP decreases BP by promoting sodium and water excretion. Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase BP by increasing heart rate and vasoconstriction. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) also plays a key role in long-term BP regulation.