Anatomy & Physiology: Study Guide for Chapters 1 & 2

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy vs. Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences in understanding the human body. Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology focuses on the function of those parts.

• Anatomy: Examines the physical structure, location, and relationships of body parts.

• Physiology: Explores how body parts work and carry out life-sustaining activities.

• Example: Studying the heart's chambers (anatomy) vs. understanding how the heart pumps blood (physiology).

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

The human body is organized in a hierarchical structure from the simplest to the most complex:

• Chemical level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular level: Cells and their organelles

• Tissue level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ level: Contains two or more types of tissues

• Organ system level: Organs that work closely together

• Organismal level: All organ systems combined to make the whole organism

Organ Systems

There are 11 major organ systems in the human body, each with specific functions. Students should be able to identify the organs in each system and their primary roles.

• Examples: Digestive system (stomach, intestines), Respiratory system (lungs, trachea)

Anatomical Directional Terms

Directional terms are used to describe the locations of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.

• Superior (cranial): Toward the head

• Inferior (caudal): Away from the head

• Anterior (ventral): Toward the front

• Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back

• Medial: Toward the midline

• Lateral: Away from the midline

• Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part

• Distal: Farther from the origin

• Superficial: Toward or at the body surface

• Deep: Away from the body surface

Body Planes and Sections

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

• Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left parts

• Midsagittal (median): Lies on the midline

• Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

• Transverse (horizontal) plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts

• Oblique plane: Cuts made diagonally

Body Cavities and Membranes

The body contains several cavities that house and protect internal organs.

• Dorsal cavity: Cranial and vertebral cavities

• Ventral cavity: Thoracic (pleural and pericardial cavities) and abdominopelvic (abdominal and pelvic cavities)

Serous membranes line body cavities and cover organs. The parietal layer lines the cavity, while the visceral layer covers the organ.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Positive feedback: Enhances the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions)

• Negative feedback: Reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g., regulation of body temperature, blood glucose levels)

• Example: When blood sugar rises, insulin is released to lower it (negative feedback).

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Matter and Energy

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Energy is the capacity to do work or cause change.

• Types of energy: Kinetic (energy of motion) and potential (stored energy)

Structure of the Atom

Atoms are the basic units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus

• Mass number: Sum of protons and neutrons

Chemical Bonds

Atoms combine by forming chemical bonds to achieve stability.

• Ionic bonds: Transfer of electrons between atoms, forming cations (+) and anions (−)

• Covalent bonds: Sharing of electrons; can be polar (unequal sharing) or nonpolar (equal sharing)

• Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., in water molecules)

Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions involve making or breaking bonds between atoms.

• Reactants: Starting substances

• Products: Substances formed

• Types of reactions: Synthesis, decomposition, exchange

• Rates of reactions: Influenced by temperature, concentration, particle size, and catalysts

Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic compounds include water, salts, acids, and bases.

• Water: Most abundant inorganic compound; excellent solvent; involved in temperature regulation

• Acids and bases: Acids release H+; bases release OH−

• pH scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic)

Organic Compounds

Organic compounds contain carbon and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

• Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides; provide energy

• Lipids: Fats, phospholipids, steroids; energy storage, cell membranes

• Proteins: Made of amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport, defense

• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information

• ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell

Table: Comparison of Major Organic Molecules

Type	Monomer	Function	Example
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharides	Energy source	Glucose, starch
Lipids	Glycerol & fatty acids	Energy storage, membranes	Triglycerides, phospholipids
Proteins	Amino acids	Structure, enzymes	Hemoglobin, enzymes
Nucleic acids	Nucleotides	Genetic information	DNA, RNA

Additional info:

• Students should be able to describe the feedback mechanisms and provide examples of positive and negative feedback.

• Be familiar with the structure and function of ATP as the energy currency of the cell.

• Understand the importance of water's properties (polarity, high heat capacity, etc.) in physiology.