Anatomy & Physiology Test 1 Review: Key Terms and Concepts

Test 1 Review: Anatomy & Physiology

Introduction

This study guide summarizes essential terms and concepts for a college-level Anatomy & Physiology course, focusing on foundational vocabulary, physiological mechanisms, tissue types, and organization of the human body. The guide is structured to help students prepare for exam questions requiring definitions, explanations, and applications.

Key Terms and Definitions

Fundamental Concepts

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment within an organism, despite changes in external conditions. It is essential for survival and proper function.

• Viscera: The internal organs within the main cavities of the body, especially those in the abdomen.

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

• Hemolysis: The destruction or rupture of red blood cells, releasing hemoglobin into the surrounding fluid.

• Negative Feedback: A control mechanism in which a change in a physiological variable triggers a response that counteracts the initial change, maintaining homeostasis.

• Pericardium: The double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the great vessels.

• Collagen Fibers: Strong, flexible protein fibers found in connective tissue, providing structural support.

• Keratin: A tough, fibrous protein found in skin, hair, and nails, providing protection and strength.

Physiology and Cellular Processes

• Physiology: The study of the functions and mechanisms occurring in living organisms.

• Serous Membrane: A thin membrane lining body cavities and covering organs, secreting serous fluid for lubrication.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Passive movement of molecules across cell membranes via transport proteins.

• Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

• Positive Feedback: A mechanism that amplifies a change in a physiological variable, moving the system away from its starting state.

• Avascular: Lacking blood vessels; common in epithelial tissues.

• Elastic Fibers: Protein fibers in connective tissue that allow tissues to stretch and recoil.

Tissue Types and Structures

• Tissue: A group of similar cells performing a specific function.

• Transitional Epithelium: A type of epithelial tissue that can stretch and is found in the urinary bladder.

• Pinocytosis: A form of endocytosis where a cell engulfs extracellular fluid.

• Peritoneum: The serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering abdominal organs.

• Melanocyte: A cell that produces melanin, the pigment responsible for skin color.

• Arrector Pili: Small muscles attached to hair follicles that cause hair to stand up (goosebumps).

• Glycocalyx: A carbohydrate-rich coating on the surface of cells, involved in cell recognition and protection.

Histology and Connective Tissue

• Histology: The study of tissues at the microscopic level.

• Mast Cell: A cell found in connective tissue that releases histamine and other substances during inflammatory and allergic reactions.

• Receptor: A protein that binds to specific molecules, triggering a cellular response.

• Supine: Lying on the back, face upward.

• Mucous: Relating to, producing, or covered with mucus.

• Fibroblast: A cell that synthesizes the extracellular matrix and collagen, playing a critical role in wound healing.

Organization and Functions of the Human Body

Levels of Organization

The human body is organized into hierarchical levels, each with specific functions:

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules essential for life.

• Cellular Level: Cells, the basic units of life.

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types working together.

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs that perform related functions.

• Organism Level: The complete living being.

Functions of Living Things

• Metabolism

• Responsiveness

• Movement

• Growth

• Reproduction

• Differentiation

Types of Tissues

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues.

• Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement.

• Nervous Tissue: Transmits electrical impulses.

Homeostatic Mechanisms

• Involve receptors, control centers, and effectors.

• Use negative and positive feedback loops to maintain stability.

Feedback Mechanisms

Negative vs. Positive Feedback

• Negative Feedback: Maintains homeostasis by reversing deviations from a set point. Example: Regulation of body temperature.

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies changes, often leading to a specific outcome. Example: Blood clotting, childbirth.

Body Cavities and Membranes

Major Body Cavities

• Dorsal Cavity: Contains the brain and spinal cord.

• Ventral Cavity: Includes thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Serous Membranes

• Pleura: Surrounds the lungs.

• Pericardium: Surrounds the heart.

• Peritoneum: Surrounds abdominal organs.

Basic Anatomical Terminology

Body Position, Regions, and Directional Terms

• Supine: Lying face upward.

• Prone: Lying face downward.

• Anterior (ventral): Toward the front.

• Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back.

• Medial: Toward the midline.

• Lateral: Away from the midline.

• Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment.

• Distal: Farther from the point of attachment.

Cell Structure and Function

Parts of the Cell

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

• Plasma Membrane: Regulates entry and exit of substances.

• Cytoplasm: Site of cellular activities.

• Organelles: Specialized structures (e.g., mitochondria, ribosomes).

Exocrine Glands

Types of Exocrine Glands

• Merocrine Glands: Secrete products via exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands).

• Apocrine Glands: Release part of the cell with the secretion (e.g., mammary glands).

• Holocrine Glands: Entire cell disintegrates to release its product (e.g., sebaceous glands).

Connective Tissue Cells

Fixed vs. Wandering Cells

• Fixed Cells: Remain in place within connective tissue (e.g., fibroblasts, adipocytes).

• Wandering Cells: Move through tissue, often involved in immune responses (e.g., macrophages, mast cells).

Cartilage Types

• Hyaline Cartilage: Most common, provides support and flexibility.

• Elastic Cartilage: Contains elastic fibers, found in ear and epiglottis.

• Fibrocartilage: Strongest, resists compression, found in intervertebral discs.

Nervous Tissue

Neuron Structure

• Cell Body: Contains nucleus and organelles.

• Dendrites: Receive signals.

• Axon: Transmits impulses away from cell body.

Neuroglia

• Support and protect neurons.

Integumentary System

Layers of the Epidermis

• Stratum Basale

• Stratum Spinosum

• Stratum Granulosum

• Stratum Lucidum (only in thick skin)

• Stratum Corneum

Hypodermis

• Subcutaneous layer containing fat and connective tissue.

Arrector Pili

• Small muscles causing hair to stand up.

Wound Healing

Four Stages of Deep Wound Healing

• Hemostasis

• Inflammation

• Proliferation

• Remodeling

Serous Membranes and Infections

• Serous Membranes: Line body cavities and secrete fluid.

• Infections: Can occur when membranes are breached or inflamed (e.g., peritonitis).

Prostaglandins

• Lipid compounds with hormone-like effects, involved in inflammation and other processes.

Medical Conditions

• Serous Membrane Infection: Example: Peritonitis, an infection of the peritoneum.

Summary Table: Types of Exocrine Glands

Type	Secretion Method	Example
Merocrine	Exocytosis	Sweat glands
Apocrine	Part of cell released	Mammary glands
Holocrine	Entire cell disintegrates	Sebaceous glands

Key Equations

• Osmosis: $J = -D \frac{dC}{dx}$ (where J is flux, D is diffusion coefficient, C is concentration)

• Feedback Regulation: $\text{Response} = \text{Set Point} - \text{Current Value}$

Additional info: Some definitions and explanations have been expanded for clarity and completeness. The table and equations are provided for academic context and may not have been explicitly listed in the original material.