ANP College Midterm Study Guide: Cardiovascular, Immune, Endocrine, Respiratory, and Sensory Systems

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Cardiovascular System

Blood Components and Functions

The cardiovascular system is responsible for the transport of nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products throughout the body. Blood is composed of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets).

Hemorrhage: Excessive loss of blood from the circulatory system, which can lead to hypovolemic shock.
Blood Types: Determined by the presence or absence of antigens (A, B, AB, O) and Rh factor on red blood cells.
Universal Donor: Type O negative blood can be given to any recipient.
Distributing Functions of Blood: Transport of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.
Normal pH Range of Blood: 7.35–7.45.

Blood Clotting and Hemostasis

Hemostasis is the process that stops bleeding and involves three main phases.

Phases of Hemostasis:
1. Vascular spasm
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (blood clotting)
Correct Sequence of Blood Clotting: Vascular spasm → Platelet plug formation → Coagulation cascade → Fibrin clot formation.
Platelets: Also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments essential for blood clotting.

Blood Disorders

Pernicious Anemia: Caused by vitamin B12 deficiency, often due to lack of intrinsic factor.
Aplastic Anemia: Failure of bone marrow to produce adequate blood cells.
Sickle Cell Anemia: Genetic disorder causing abnormal hemoglobin, leading to sickle-shaped RBCs.
Polycythemia: Excessive production of red blood cells, increasing blood viscosity.

Cardiac Anatomy and Physiology

Left Ventricular Wall Thickness: The left ventricle pumps blood to the entire body (systemic circulation), requiring more force than the right ventricle, which pumps only to the lungs.
Conduction System of the Heart: Includes the SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
Electrocardiogram (ECG) Waves:
- P wave: Atrial depolarization
- QRS complex: Ventricular depolarization
- T wave: Ventricular repolarization
Cardiac Cycle and Heart Sounds: The second heart sound ("dup") is heard at the beginning of ventricular diastole, caused by closure of the semilunar valves.
Myocardial Infarct: Also known as a heart attack, results from prolonged ischemia (lack of blood supply) to cardiac muscle.
Angina Pectoris: Chest pain due to temporary ischemia of the myocardium.
Ischemia: Inadequate blood supply to an organ or tissue.
Pericarditis: Inflammation of the pericardium, the sac surrounding the heart.
Heart Block: Damage to the AV node or bundle, disrupting electrical conduction.

Blood Vessels and Circulation

Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart; have thick, muscular walls.
Veins: Return blood to the heart; have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow.
Capillaries: Sites of exchange between blood and tissues.
Arterioles: Small arteries that regulate blood flow into capillaries.
Venules: Small veins that collect blood from capillaries.
Pulmonary Circulation: Circulation of blood between the heart and lungs.
Velocity of Blood Flow: Inversely related to the total cross-sectional area of blood vessels; slowest in capillaries.
Peripheral Resistance: Resistance to blood flow in the systemic circulation, mainly due to arterioles.
Factors Influencing Blood Pressure: Cardiac output, blood volume, resistance, elasticity of arteries.
Baroreceptors: Pressure-sensitive receptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch that detect changes in blood pressure.
Hypertension: Chronic high blood pressure, which can lead to heart disease, stroke, and kidney failure.
Foramen Ovale and Ductus Arteriosus: Fetal circulatory structures that close at birth to establish normal adult circulation.

Blood Gases and Gas Exchange

Main Sites of Gas Exchange: Alveoli in the lungs.
Mechanism of Gas Exchange: Diffusion across the respiratory membrane.
Bulk of CO2 Transport: As bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in plasma.
Dalton’s Law: Total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.
Henry’s Law: The amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to its partial pressure.
Boyle’s Law: (Pressure and volume are inversely related at constant temperature.)
Charles’ Law: (Volume and temperature are directly related at constant pressure.)

Respiratory Volumes and Control

Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath (~500 mL).
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhalation.
Vital Capacity (VC): Total amount of exchangeable air; .
Intrapulmonary Pressure: Pressure within the alveoli; changes during breathing to allow air movement.
Lung Compliance: The ease with which lungs can expand; determined by lung elasticity and surface tension.
Respiratory Control Centers: Located in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brainstem.
Air Movement: Air moves out of the lungs when intrapulmonary pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure (expiration).

Immune and Lymphatic Systems

Immunity and Immune Responses

Passive Immunity: Immunity acquired by receiving antibodies from another source (e.g., maternal antibodies, antiserum).
Primary Immune Response: The initial response to an antigen, characterized by a lag period and production of IgM antibodies.
Immunocompetence: The ability of lymphocytes to recognize and respond to specific antigens.
Complete Antigens: Substances that can both provoke an immune response and react with the products of that response.
Interferon: Proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help protect uninfected cells by inhibiting viral replication.
Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Can kill cancer cells and virus-infected cells before activation of adaptive immunity.
Phagocytosis Sequence: Chemotaxis → Adherence → Ingestion → Digestion → Exocytosis of debris.
Inflammatory Response: A nonspecific defense mechanism involving redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

Lymphatic System Structure and Function

Lymphatic Structures: Lymph nodes, lymph follicles, lymphatics, tonsils, thymus, Peyer’s patches, appendix.
Functions of the Lymphatic System: Returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream, absorbs dietary fats, and provides immune defense.
Lymph Node Drainage: Lymph leaves a lymph node via efferent lymphatic vessels.
Right Lymphatic Duct: Drains lymph from the right upper limb and right side of the head and thorax.
Thymus: Site of T lymphocyte maturation; produces hormones (thymosins) that assist in immune development.
B Lymphocytes: Develop immunocompetence in the bone marrow.
T Lymphocytes: Mature in the thymus; involved in cell-mediated immunity.
Lymph Transport: Involves skeletal muscle contraction, respiratory movements, and valves to prevent backflow.

Antibodies and Immunoglobulins

Antibody Classes: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE.
Characteristics of Antibodies: Proteins produced by plasma cells; bind specifically to antigens.
Functions: Neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, and activation of complement.

Endocrine System

Hormones and Mechanisms of Action

Protein or Amino Acid-Based Hormones: Exert their effects through intracellular second messengers (e.g., cAMP, Ca2+).
Second Messenger Mechanism: Hormone binds to receptor → activates G protein → activates adenylate cyclase → increases cAMP → activates protein kinases.
Steroid Hormones: Exert their action by directly entering the cell and binding to intracellular receptors, affecting gene transcription.
Factors for Target Cell Activation: Hormone concentration, number of receptors, and affinity of receptor for hormone.
Posterior Pituitary Gland: Not a true endocrine gland because it stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus.
Hormones and Their Organs:
- Aldosterone: Produced by the adrenal cortex; regulates sodium and potassium balance.
- Epinephrine: Produced by the adrenal medulla; involved in fight-or-flight response.
- Estrogen: Produced by ovaries; regulates female reproductive system.
- Renin: Produced by the kidneys; involved in blood pressure regulation.
- Angiotensinogen: Produced by the liver; precursor to angiotensin I.
- Secretin, Gastrin: Gastrointestinal hormones regulating digestive processes.
- Leptin: Produced by adipose tissue; regulates appetite.
- ANP (Atrial Natriuretic Peptide): Synthesized by the heart; reduces blood pressure and blood volume.
- Parathyroid Hormone: Increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts, increasing intestinal absorption, and promoting renal reabsorption of calcium.
- FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone): Stimulates gamete production; deficiency in males leads to infertility.

Respiratory System

Respiratory Anatomy and Physiology

Main Sites of Gas Exchange: Alveoli in the lungs.
Type I Alveolar Cells: Form the structure of the alveolar wall; site of gas exchange.
Type II Alveolar Cells: Secrete surfactant to reduce surface tension and prevent alveolar collapse.
Respiratory Control Centers: Located in the medulla oblongata and pons.
Mechanism of Gas Exchange: Simple diffusion driven by partial pressure gradients.
Compliance: Determined by lung elasticity and surface tension.

Sensory Systems

Vision

Order of Light Passage Through the Eye: Cornea → Aqueous humor → Lens → Vitreous humor → Retina.
Rods: Photoreceptors responsible for vision in dim light; main function is night vision.
Cones: Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and visual acuity.
Ganglion Cells, Bipolar Cells: Neurons in the retina involved in visual signal processing.
Dark Adaptation: The process by which eyes increase sensitivity in low light conditions.
Conscious Perception of Vision: Occurs in the visual cortex of the occipital lobe.

Hearing and Equilibrium

Receptors for Hearing: Located in the cochlea (organ of Corti).
Maculae: Sensory structures in the utricle and saccule involved in static equilibrium.
Utricle, Cochlear Duct, Semicircular Canals: Structures involved in balance and hearing.
Equilibrium: Maintained by the vestibular apparatus (semicircular canals, utricle, saccule).

Taste and Smell

Olfactory Cells: Stimulated by odorant molecules dissolved in mucus.
Taste Buds: Stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva; not found on the filiform papillae.
Fungiform Papillae: Contain taste buds.
Gustatory Hairs: Microvilli that project from taste cells and detect tastants.

Table: Blood Types and Compatibility

Blood Type	Antigens	Antibodies	Can Donate To	Can Receive From
O-	None	Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-Rh	All types (universal donor)	O-
O+	Rh	Anti-A, Anti-B	O+, A+, B+, AB+	O-, O+
A-	A	Anti-B, Anti-Rh	A-, A+, AB-, AB+	O-, A-
A+	A, Rh	Anti-B	A+, AB+	O-, O+, A-, A+
B-	B	Anti-A, Anti-Rh	B-, B+, AB-, AB+	O-, B-
B+	B, Rh	Anti-A	B+, AB+	O-, O+, B-, B+
AB-	A, B	Anti-Rh	AB-, AB+	O-, A-, B-, AB-
AB+	A, B, Rh	None	AB+	All types (universal recipient)

Table: Major White Blood Cells and Their Functions

Cell Type	Function
Neutrophils	Phagocytosis of bacteria and debris
Eosinophils	Combat parasitic infections; modulate allergic responses
Basophils	Release histamine in allergic reactions
Monocytes	Differentiate into macrophages; phagocytosis
Lymphocytes (B and T cells)	Adaptive immunity (antibody production, cell-mediated immunity)

Table: Major Plasma Proteins

Protein	Function
Albumin	Maintains osmotic pressure; transports substances
Alpha Globulin	Transport proteins; clotting factors
Gamma Globulin	Antibodies (immunoglobulins)
Fibrinogen	Blood clotting

Table: Hormone Mechanisms

Hormone Type	Mechanism of Action
Protein/Amino Acid-Based	Second messenger systems (e.g., cAMP, Ca2+)
Steroid	Direct gene activation via intracellular receptors

Additional info:

Some content was expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard ANP college curriculum.
Tables were inferred and constructed to summarize key compatibility and cell function information.