ANP Exam 2 Study Guide: Tissues, Integumentary System, Bones, Joints, and Muscles

Chapter 4: Tissues

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces, line internal cavities, and form glands. They are classified based on the number of cell layers and cell shape.

• Classification by Layers:

  • Simple: One layer of cells

  • Stratified: Multiple layers of cells

• Classification by Shape:

  • Squamous: Flat, scale-like cells

  • Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells

  • Columnar: Tall, column-shaped cells

• Eight Types of Epithelial Tissue:

  • Simple squamous

  • Simple cuboidal

  • Simple columnar

  • Pseudostratified columnar

  • Stratified squamous

  • Stratified cuboidal

  • Stratified columnar

  • Transitional

• Functions and Locations:

  • Simple squamous: Diffusion and filtration; found in alveoli of lungs, lining of blood vessels

  • Simple cuboidal: Secretion and absorption; found in kidney tubules

  • Simple columnar: Absorption and secretion; found in digestive tract

  • Pseudostratified columnar: Secretion, movement of mucus; found in respiratory tract

  • Stratified squamous: Protection; found in skin, mouth, esophagus

  • Stratified cuboidal/columnar: Protection; found in ducts of glands

  • Transitional: Stretching; found in urinary bladder

• Gland: A structure made of epithelial cells that secretes substances. Exocrine glands secrete onto surfaces; endocrine glands secrete into blood.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues support, protect, and bind other tissues. They share an extracellular matrix composed of ground substance, fibers, and cells.

• Components:

  • Ground substance: Gel-like material that fills space between cells

  • Fibers: Collagen (strength), elastic (stretch), reticular (support)

  • Cells: Each major class has a main cell type; immature cells end in -blast, mature cells end in -cyte

• Types of Connective Tissue:

  • Loose connective tissue: Areolar, adipose, reticular

  • Dense connective tissue: Dense regular, dense irregular, elastic

  • Cartilage: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

  • Bone: Main cell types are osteoblasts (immature), osteocytes (mature); structural unit is the osteon

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction and movement.

• Three Types: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is specialized for communication via electrical signals.

• Two Main Types: Neurons and neuroglia (supporting cells)

Membranes

Body membranes are sheets of tissue covering surfaces or lining cavities.

• Cutaneous: Skin; dry, protective

• Mucous: Lines cavities open to exterior; moist, secretes mucus

• Serous: Lines closed cavities; secretes serous fluid

Chapter 5: Integumentary System

Structure of Skin

The skin consists of two main layers and a subcutaneous layer beneath.

• Layers:

  • Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium

  • Dermis: Connective tissue; divided into papillary (loose areolar) and reticular (dense irregular) layers

  • Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): Adipose and areolar tissue; stores fat, anchors skin

• Layers of Epidermis (deep to superficial):

  1. Stratum basale

  2. Stratum spinosum

  3. Stratum granulosum

  4. Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

  5. Stratum corneum

• Papillary Dermis: Made of areolar connective tissue; contains dermal papillae

• Reticular Dermis: Made of dense irregular connective tissue; provides strength

• Cleavage Lines: Natural lines in skin due to collagen fiber arrangement; important for surgery

• Flexure Lines: Folds at joints; allow skin movement

Skin Color

• Melanin: Brown-black pigment; protects against UV

• Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment; from diet

• Hemoglobin: Red pigment in blood; gives pink hue

Other Structures

• Dendritic Cells: Immune cells in epidermis

• Hair: Color determined by melanin type and amount; grows from follicles

• Nails: Made of hard keratin; grow from nail matrix

• Sweat Glands: Eccrine (all over body, for cooling), apocrine (armpits, groin, body odor from bacteria)

Burns

• 1st Degree: Epidermis only; redness

• 2nd Degree: Epidermis and part of dermis; blisters

• 3rd Degree: Entire skin; risk of infection, fluid loss

Chapter 6: Bones and Skeletal Tissue

Cartilage

• Three Types:

  • Hyaline: Support, flexibility; found in joints

  • Elastic: Flexibility; found in ear

  • Fibrocartilage: Strength; found in intervertebral discs

Bone Tissue

• Five Types of Tissue in Bone: Bone tissue, cartilage, blood, nervous tissue, connective tissue

• Compact vs. Spongy Bone:

  • Compact: Dense, forms outer layer

  • Spongy: Porous, inside bone

• Periosteum: Outer membrane covering bone

• Endosteum: Inner membrane lining bone cavities

• Parts of Long Bone:

  • Epiphysis: Ends; mostly spongy bone

  • Diaphysis: Shaft; mostly compact bone

  • Epiphyseal Line: Remnant of growth plate

• Red Bone Marrow: Site of hematopoiesis (blood cell formation)

Bone Remodeling and Growth

• Cells Involved:

  • Osteoblasts: Build bone

  • Osteoclasts: Break down bone

• Bone Remodeling: Continuous process of bone resorption and deposition

• Bone Growth: Long bones grow via interstitial growth at epiphyseal plate; zones include hypertrophic, calcification, ossification

• Bone Thickness: Maintained by osteoblasts in periosteum and osteoclasts in endosteum

Calcium Homeostasis

• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Increases blood calcium by stimulating osteoclasts

• Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium by stimulating osteoblasts

• Bones as Calcium Bank: Store and release calcium as needed

Wolff's Law

• Bone adapts to stress: More stress = stronger bone; lack of stress = bone loss

Fractures and Healing

• Types of Fractures: Open (compound), closed (simple), incomplete, complete

• Bone Healing Stages:

  1. Hematoma formation

  2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation

  3. Bony callus formation

  4. Bone remodeling

Chapter 8: Joints

Classification of Joints

Joints connect bones and allow movement. They are classified structurally and functionally.

• Structural Classification:

  • Fibrous: Bones joined by fibrous tissue; no cavity (sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses)

  • Cartilaginous: Bones joined by cartilage; no cavity (synchondroses, symphyses)

  • Synovial: Bones separated by fluid-filled cavity

• Functional Classification:

  • Synarthroses: Immovable

  • Amphiarthroses: Slightly movable

  • Diarthroses: Freely movable

Synovial Joints

• Articular Capsule: Encloses joint; contains synovial fluid for lubrication

• Ligaments: Capsular (part of capsule), extracapsular (outside), intracapsular (inside)

• Bursae and Tendon Sheaths: Fluid-filled sacs reducing friction; not part of capsule

• Joint Stability: Most important factor is muscle tone

• Muscle Origin vs. Insertion: Origin is fixed, insertion moves during contraction

Joint Movements

• Angular Movements: Extension, flexion, abduction, adduction, circumduction, rotation

• Special Movements: Supination, pronation, dorsiflexion, inversion, eversion, elevation, depression

Joint Injuries and Disorders

• Cartilage Tear: Damage to cartilage

• Sprain: Ligament stretch/tear

• Dislocation: Bone out of joint

• Bursitis: Inflammation of bursae

• Tendonitis: Inflammation of tendon sheath

• Osteoarthritis: Degenerative joint disease

• Rheumatoid Arthritis: Autoimmune joint inflammation

Chapter 9: Muscles and Muscle Tissue

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, heart

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated, organs

Organization of Skeletal Muscle

• Connective Tissue Layers:

  • Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle

  • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles

  • Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers

• Muscle Fiber: Muscle cell; contains myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, T tubules

• Glycosomes: Store glycogen

• Myoglobin: Stores oxygen

Muscle Contraction

• Sarcomere: Functional unit; contraction occurs as actin and myosin slide past each other

• Thick Filaments (Myosin): Pull actin during contraction

• Thin Filaments (Actin): Anchored to Z disc; move during contraction

• Tropomyosin and Troponin: Regulate actin-myosin interaction

• Calcium: Binds to troponin, exposes binding sites

• Action Potential: Electrical signal triggers contraction

• Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter; initiates action potential in muscle

• Acetylcholinesterase: Breaks down acetylcholine; stops contraction

• Calcium Reuptake: Ends contraction

Force Generation

• Motor Unit: One motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates

• Temporal Summation: Increased frequency of stimulation increases force

• Recruitment: More motor units activated increases force

• Muscle Tone: Constant, partial contraction for posture

Type of Muscle Tissue	Location	Control	Striations
Skeletal	Attached to bones	Voluntary	Yes
Cardiac	Heart	Involuntary	Yes
Smooth	Walls of organs	Involuntary	No

Example: Lifting a pencil uses fewer motor units than lifting a cinder block.

Additional info: Muscle contraction is governed by the sliding filament theory, where ATP is required for myosin to detach from actin and repeat the contraction cycle.